Abstract
Modern societies have utilized fossil energy, water, and most other Earth materials at consumption rates far exceeding those of planetary replenishment. The well-known collapse of isolated island communities shows that overexploitation of the environment ultimately ends in disaster. It is now apparent that humanity must reach a steady-state stewardship of the Earth employing efficient, universal mineral resource recovery, recycling, substitution, dematerialization, and conservation. The goal of consumption of renewable resources at or below recharge rates and near-total recycling of non-renewable Earth materials can only be achieved employing universally available, inexpensive energy. However, the Second Law of Thermodynamics dictates that a part of the nonrenewable mineral resource base and most of the spent energy are irretrievably lost as entropy increase. Research-pioneered technological advances leading to the production and ubiquitous availability of environmentally benign, cheap energy will be required in order to reach the sustainable utilization of mineral resources. The principal, virtually unlimited, renewable energy sources appear to be solar and fusion power.
Assuming technical, economic, and political success in achieving universal equity and a comfortable standard of living for the World population, the global ecosystem will be severely impacted by the increased human consumption of Earth materials, reflecting environmental modification attending resource extraction and consumption. The dynamic biospheric equilibrium and ecosystem viability—the carrying capacity of the planet—is deteriorating and is increasingly at risk. Thus, the greatest long-term challenge facing humanity is not global climate change, or even the required transformation to renewable, cheap energy systems, but the necessity of preserving a healthy, sustainable biosphere.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
By early 2008, the American population exceeded 303 million (U.S. Census Bureau 2008) and very likely the utilization of resources has risen commensurately.
References
Ahlbrandt, T. S., 2002, Future oil and gas resources of the world: A coming supply crisis? Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 83, SM02/html/U32A-02.html
Alexander, S. E., and Ehrlich, P. R., 2000, Population and the environment: pp. 329–345 in Ernst, W. G., ed., Earth Systems: Processes and Issues. Cambridge University Press, New York, 566p.
Ali, S. H., 2003, Mining, the Environment, and Indigenous Development Conflicts. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 254p.
Alley, W. M., Healy, R. W., LaBaugh, J. W., and Reilly, T. E., 2002, Flow and storage in groundwater systems. Science, 296, 1985–1990.
Baldwin, S. F., 2002, Renewable energy: progress and prospects. Physics Today, 55(4), 62–67.
Balmford, A., Bruner, A., Cooper, P., Constanza, R., Farber, S., Green, R. E., Jenkins, M., Jefferiss, P., Jessamy, V., Madden, J., Munro, K., Myers, N., Naeem, S., Paavola, J., Rayment, M., Rosendo, S., Roughgarden, J., Trumper, K., and Turner, R. K., 2002, Economic reasons for conserving wild nature. Science, 297, 950–953.
Bergkamp, G., and Sadoff, C. W., 2008, Water in a sustainable economy: Chapter 8, pp. 107–122 in Esty, D.C., ed., State of the World: The Worldwatch Institute, W. W. Norton & Co., New York, 269p.
British Petroleum, 2008 World Coal Reserves: http://wwww.bp.com.sectiongenericarticle
Brown, D., 2000, Bulls and bears duel over supply. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Explorer, May, 12–15.
Campbell, C. J., and Laherrer, J. H., 1998, The end of cheap oil. Scientific American, 278, 78–83.
Chesworth, W., 2002, Sustainability and the end of history. Geotimes, 47(10), 5, 52.
Cordani, U. G., 2000, The role of the earth sciences in a sustainable world. Episodes, 13, 155–162.
Corson, W. H., 2002, Recognizing hidden environmental and social costs and reducing ecological and societal damage through tax, price, and subsidy reform. The Environmentalist, 22, 67–82.
Craig, J. R., Vaughan, D. J., and Skinner, B. J., 2001, Resources of the Earth. 3rd edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ, 520p.
Crosby, A. W., 2006, Children of the Sun: A History of Humanity’s Unappeasable Appetite for Energy. W. W. Norton and Company, New York, 192p.
Daily, G. C., ed., 1997, Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Daily, G. C., and Ellison, K., 2002, The New Economy of Nature. Island Press, Washington, DC, 260p.
Davidson, J. P., Reed, W. E., and Davis, P. M., 2002, Exploring Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology. 2nd edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ, 477p.
Deffeyes, K. S., 2001, Hubbert’s Peak: The Impending World Oil Shortage. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 208p.
Diamond, J., 2005, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Viking Press, New York, 575p.
DOE, 2001, International Energy Outlook 2001: Report No. DOE/EIA-0219 (99), U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
DOE, 2004, The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs: U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10922.html
DOE, 2008, Energy Sources: U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, http://www.energy.gov/energy sources/index.html
Doran, J. W., and Sims, J. T., 2002, Sustaining Earth and its people. Geotimes, American Geological Institute, 47(7), 5.
DuPont, 2008, Science of Photovoltaic Energy: http://www2.dupont.com/Photofoltaics/en_US/ science_of/index.html
Dye, C., 2008, Health and urban living. Science, 319, 766–769.
Eggert, R. G., 2008, Trends in mineral economics: editorial perspective, 1986–2006. Resources Policy, 33, 1–3.
Einaudi, M. T, 2000, Mineral resources: assets and liabilities: pp. 346–372 in Ernst, W. G. (ed.) Earth Systems: Processes and Issues. Cambridge University Press, New York, 566p.
Ernst, W. G., 2001, The increasing severity of circumpacific natural hazards. International Geology Review, 43, 380–390.
Ernst, W. G., 2002, Global equity and sustainable Earth resource consumption requires super-efficient extraction-conservation-recycling and ubiquitous, inexpensive energy. International Geology Review, 44, 1072–1091.
European Commission, 2004, European Fusion Research Area: http://europa.eu.int/comm/ research/rtdinfo_en.html
Field Museum, 2008, Biodiversity and Conservation: The Web of Life, http://www.fieldmuseum. org/biodiversity
Fouda, S. A., 1998, Liquid fuels from natural gas. Scientific American, March 1998, 92–95.
Freeze, R. A., 2000, The Environmental Pendulum. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 323p.
Fyfe, W. S., 1989, Soil and global change. Episodes, 12, 249–254.
Galbraith, J. K., 2002, A perfect crime: global inequality. Daedalus, Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, LV(3), 11–25.
George, R. L., 1998, Mining for oil. Scientific American, 278, 84–85.
Gleick, P. H., 1998, The World’s Water 1998–1999. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Gordon, R. B., Bertram, M., and Graedel, T. E., 2006, Metal stocks and sustainability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103, 1209–1214.
Grimm, N. B., Faeth, S. H., Golubiewski, N. E., Redman, C. L., Wu, J. G., Bai, X. M., and Briggs, J. M., 2008, Global change and the ecology of cities. Science, 310, 756–760.
Guptill, S. C., 2001, Disease aftershocks—the health effects of natural disasters. International Geology Review, 43, 419–423.
Harrison, P., and Pearce, F., 2000, AAAS Atlas of Population & Environment: American Association for the Advancement of Science. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 204p.
Hoffert, M. I., Caldera, K., Benford, G., Criswell, D. R., Green, C., Herzog, H., Jain, A. K., Kheshgi, H. S., Lackner, K. S., Lewis, J. S., Lightfoot, H. D., Manheimer, W., Mankins, J. C., Mauel, M. E., Perkins, L. J., Schlesinger, M. E., Volk, T., and Wigley, T. M. L., 2002, Advanced technology paths to global climate stability: energy for a greenhouse planet. Science, 298, 981–987.
Holdren, J. P., 2008, Science and technology for sustainable well-being. Science, 319, 424–434.
Hubbert, M. K., 1981, The world’s evolving energy system. American Journal of Physics, 49, 1007–1029.
Hutson, S. S., Barber, N. L., Kenny, J. F., Linsey, K. S., Lumia, D. S., and Maupin, M. A., 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, 52p.
International Energy Agency, 2007, Key World Energy Statistics. Head of Communication and Information Office, Paris, 82p.
IPCC, 2007, Fourth Assessment Report: http://www.ipcc/ch/ipccreports/ar4-syr.htm
IUGG, 2002, Preparation process for the world summit for sustainable development: Chapter 31, Agenda 21. International Union of Geology and Geophysics, Washington, DC, 16p.
Johnson, W., and Paone, J., 1982, Land Utilization and Reclamation in the Mining Industry, 1930–1980: Bureau of Mines Information Circular 8862. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC.
Kesler, S. E., and Wilkinson, B. H., 2008, Earth’s copper resources estimated from tectonic diffusion of porphyry copper deposits. Geology, 36, 255–258.
Khanna, T., ed., 2000, Mine Closure and Sustainable Development: World Bank Group, Mining Department. Mining Journal Books, Ltd, London, England, 154p.
Lewis, N. S., 2007, Toward cost-effective solar energy use. Science, 315, 798–801.
Marcus, G. H., and Levin, A. E., 2002, New designs for the nuclear renaissance. Physics Today, 55(4), 54–60.
McNutt, M. C., 2002, Engineering the ocean. Daedalus, Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, LV(3), 42–54.
Mendelsohn, R., and Neumann, J. E., eds., 1999, The Impact of Climate Change on the United States Economy. Cambridge University Press, New York, 331p.
Moniz, E. J., and Kenderdine, M. A., 2002, Meeting energy challenges: technology and policy. Physics Today, 55(4), 40–46.
Nearing, M. A., Romkens, M. J. M., Norton, L. D., Stott, D. E., Rhoton, F. E., Laflen, J. M., Flanagan, D. C., Alonso, C. V., Bingner, R. A., Dabney, S. M., Doering, O. C., Huang, C. H., McGregor, K. C., and Simon, A., 2000, Measurement and models of soil loss rates. Science, 290, 1300–1301.
Nordstrom, D. K., 2002, Worldwide occurrences of arsenic in ground water. Science, 296, 2143–2144.
NRC, 1996, Mineral Resources and Sustainability: Challenges for Earth Scientists. National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 25p.
NRC, 1999, Our Common Journey: A Transition Toward Sustainability. National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 363p.
NRC, 2004, The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs. National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 256p.
NRC, 2006, Trends in Oil Supply and Demand, Potential for Peaking of Conventional Oil Production, and Possible Mitigation Options. National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 61p.
NRC, 2007a, Minerals, Critical Minerals, and the U.S. Economy. National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 216p.
NRC, 2007b, Rising Above the Gathering Storm: Energizing and Employing America for a Brighter Economic Future. National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 592p.
Obermiller, J., 1999, Historic world oil production: table 10 in Basic Petroleum Data Book: v. 19, sec. 4. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
Ogden, J. M., 2002, Hydrogen: the fuel of the future? Physics Today, April 2002, 69–75.
Perrine, R. L., and Ernst, W. G., eds., 1985, Rubey Volume III: Energy for Ourselves and Our Posterity. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 434p.
Pitman, N. C. A., and Jorgensen, P. M., 2002, Estimating the size of the world’s threatened flora. Science, 298, 989.
Raven, P. H., 2002, Science, sustainability, and the human prospect. Science, 297, 954–958.
Raven, P. H., and Williams, T., eds., 2000, Nature and Human Society: The Quest for a Sustainable World. National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 644p.
Richards, J. P., 2002, Sustainable development and the minerals industry. Society of Economic Geologists Newsletter, 48, January 2002, 1–12.
Rojataczer, S., Sterling, S. M., and Moore, N. J., 2001, Human appropriation of photosynthesis products. Science, 294, 2549–2552.
Rona, P. A., 2002, Marine Minerals for the 21st Century: Episodes. International Union of Geological Sciences, Delft, The Netherlands, pp. 2–12.
Sandia National Laboratories, 2008, National Solar Thermal Test Facility: http://www.sandia.gov/Renewable_energy/solarthermal/nstttf.html
Schaetzl, R. J., and Anderson, S., 2005, Soils: Genesis and Geomorphology. Cambridge Universty Press, New York, 832p.
Schlesinger, W. H., 1997, Geotimes, 42(2), 44–46.
Scientific American, 1989, Managing Planet Earth. W. H. Freeman and Co., New York, 146p.
Skinner, B. J., 1976, A second iron age ahead? American Scientist, 64, 258–269.
Skinner, B. J., 1979, Earth resources. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 76, 4212–4217.
Skinner, B. J., 1989, Resources in the 21st century: can supplies meet needs? Episodes, 12, 267–275.
Solley, W. B., Pierce, R. R., and Perlman, H. A., 1998, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1995. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200, Washington, DC, 71p.
Solow, R., 1993, An almost practical step towards sustainability. Resources Policy, 19(3), 162–172.
Stephanopoulos, G., 2007, Challenges in engineering microbes for biofuels production. Science, 315, 801–804.
Tarbuck, E. J., and Lutgens, F. K., 2002, Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology, 7th edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ, 670p.
Tilton, J. E., 2002, On Borrowed Time? Assessing the Threat of Mineral Depletion. Resources for the Future, Washington, DC, 142p.
Trenberth, K. E., 2007, Warmer oceans, stronger hurricanes. Scientific American, 297, 45–51.
U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, http://www.census.gov
U.S. Geological Survey, 2000, Minerals Yearbook: Area Reports: Domestic 2000. U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, DC, 551p.
UN, 1999, World Population Prospects: The 1998 Revision. United Nations Population Division, New York.
Vitousek, P. M., Ehrlich, P. R., Ehrlich, A. H., and Matson, P. A., 1986, Human appropriation of the products of photosynthesis. Bioscience, 36, 368–373.
WCED, 1987, Our Common Future: World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission Report). Oxford University Press, New York.
WHO, 2007, The World Health Report 2007—A Safer Future: Global Public Health Security in the 21st Century, http://www.who.int/whr/2007/en/index.html
Whitesides, G. M., and Crabtree, G. W., 2007, Don’t forget long-term fundamental research in energy. Science, 315, 796–798.
Wilkinson, B. H., 2005, Humans as geologic agents: a deep-time perspective. Geology, 33, 161–164.
Wolman, M. G., 2002, The human impact: some observations. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 146, 81–98.
World Bank, 2003, Mining and Development: http://www.worldbank.org/ogmc
Yoder, H. S., Jr., 2002, Geology: significant component of new multidisciplinary sciences. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 146, 37–55.
Acknowledgments
This paper represents an update of a prior synthesis (Ernst 2002) prepared for an American Geophysical Union symposium entitled “Sustainability of Earth Resources.” Stanford University has supported my ongoing research. Brian Skinner, F.W. Wellmer, and Jeremy Richards reviewed this revised, updated manuscript. I thank the above institutions and scientists for their support and constructive feedback.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ernst, W. (2009). Sustainable Energy and Mineral Resource Extraction and Consumption—Can a Viable Biosphere Be Preserved?. In: Richards, J. (eds) Mining, Society, and a Sustainable World. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-01103-0_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-01103-0_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-01102-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-01103-0
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)