Overview
In this chapter we summarize mainly properties of the lateral structure of all shower particles combined, as recorded by conventional surface array detectors. The data that are presented here are a selection from different experiments that are operated at atmospheric depths ranging from sea level to the altitude of Mt. Chacaltaya (5,230 m), and from simulations that are representative for the various observation levels. The distributions and properties of the individual shower components such as hadrons, muons, photons and electrons as well as optical (Cherenkov and fluorescence) and radio emission, are discussed separately in Chaps. 13–18, where a wealth of data is presented.
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Notes
- 1.
A similar procedure is applied for common air Cherenkov measurements with an array of wide-aperture optical detectors.
- 2.
At the time, when the theory was developed, it was assumed that air showers are initiated by primary gamma rays or electrons.
- 3.
Charmed particle decays yield so-called prompt muons because of their short mean lifetime.
- 4.
New data from the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland, will allow us to fix the hadronic interaction model parameters at an energy of about 100 PeV (108 GeV).
- 5.
ASICO, described in Chap. 20 as an example of a very comprehensive shower simulation program system, uses 12-parameters per particle, including four so-called genetic parameters which are included in some versions of CORSIKA, that permit to extract information on the origin of particles in showers.
- 6.
Genetic data include the generation and height of interaction or decay from which the particles originate.
- 7.
Unless they are extremely energetic and subject to bremsstrahlung (see Chap. 5 for details).
- 8.
For electrons the Cherenkov threshold energy in water is \(\sim 0.257\;\mathrm{MeV}\), for muons \(\sim 53\;\mathrm{MeV}\), for pions \(\sim 70\;\mathrm{MeV}\) and for protons \(\sim 475\;\mathrm{MeV}\).
- 9.
Note that deep water Cherenkov detectors are not suitable to measure the usual shower size, N or N e in individual showers (Bower et al., 1983b).
- 10.
For details concerning the shower rate attenuation length, Λatt, and shower particle absorption length, λ abs, see Chap. 6.
- 11.
The response of a single neon tube is similar to that of a Geiger counter of comparable dimensions, except that the read-out is optical.
- 12.
See also Chap. 15 where the lateral density distribution of the photon–electron component is discussed.
- 13.
The Auger experiment uses also fluorescence detectors.
- 14.
Details for the choice of the core distance for these measurements and the relation between particle density and primary energy are discussed in Sect. 10.2.
- 15.
In large showers, beyond about 1 km from the axis, muons contribute on average about 50% to the total detector signal.
- 16.
- 17.
At the Yakutsk site r M must be seasonally adapted because of the large temperature and air density changes between summer and winter.
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Grieder, P.K. (2010). Lateral Structure of Showers and Energy Flow. In: Extensive Air Showers. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-76941-5_8
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