Overview
After the introduction we give a brief historic account of the early work on hadrons in air showers, followed by comments on recent work. We outline the relevance and contributions of the experimental work using nuclear emulsion and emulsion chambers as stand-alone experiments and in conjunction with air shower arrays that have vastly increased our knowledge on ultrahigh energy hadronic interactions. Subsequently, we discuss the general properties of the hadronic component of air showers, their lateral distribution, the energy spectrum, temporal properties, and present experimental data from the large modern calorimeters and theoretical results from simulations. These basic subjects are followed by more specific topics, like the charge-to-neutral ratio, the hadron contents and composition in showers, such as antinucleons, pions, kaons and charmed particles, and some miscellaneous topics like multi-core showers, large transverse momentum phenomena and the production height of hadrons. We do not discuss spectra and properties of so-called unaccompanied hadrons, i.e., hadrons that are not directly associated with local air showers.
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Notes
- 1.
To separate the soft from the hard component a lead absorber of 20Â cm thickness was generally used at that time.
- 2.
The majority of hadron measurements made in air showers cannot distinguish between the different kinds of hadrons, i.e., nucleons, pions, etc., they usually include all hadrons unless stated otherwise.
- 3.
frequently referred to as nuclear emulsion
- 4.
- 5.
- 6.
The EAS-TOP experiment had been shut down in 2000 and KASCADE in 2009.
- 7.
Young showers \((s < 1.0)\) manifest a steeper lateral distribution than old showers \((s > 1.0)\).
- 8.
A recent review on multiparticle production based on QCD and the comparison with experimental data from many experiments, including the ratios of produced particles can be found in the paper by Kabana and Minkowski (2001).
- 9.
Punch-throughs are energetic particles, frequently e ±, that may occasionally penetrate an absorber beyond the expected range and lead to misinterpretations, a problem well known in measurements near or inside the shower core and in muon experiments.
- 10.
The bulk of these hadrons have energies \({\leq}1\;\mathrm{GeV}\) at core distances ≥10 m. Modern simulations to study neutron monitor responses are usually cut off at \({\leq}100\;\mathrm{GeV}\) where the probability for evaporation reactions becomes negligible.
- 11.
The leading particle is the most energetic hadron emerging from a high energy hadronic interaction. In nucleon-nucleon collisions it is usually a nucleon, rarely a pion (see Sect. 3.8).
- 12.
For a more detailed discussion of this topic see Chap. 3
- 13.
The two electromagnetic cascades initiated by the two gamma rays from a decayed neutral pion are intermixed and cannot be resolved.
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Grieder, P.K. (2010). Hadrons. In: Extensive Air Showers. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-76941-5_13
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