10.1 Abstract
One of the most important and obvious forces shaping organismal traits is predation. Prey have evolved diverse means of enhancing the probability of survival in the face of predation, and these means fall into two classes of antipredator strategies: (1) avoidance of predatory encounters, and (2) escaping after encountering a predator. A range of antipredator defenses—including behavioral, morphological, physiological, and chemical defenses—serve to either reduce the probability of detection by a predator or enhance the probability of surviving after detection by a predator. However, the recognition that reproductive strategies (e.g. offspring number, reproductive lifespan) are typically strongly influenced by mortality regimes induced by predators, highlights that most but not all “antipredator traits” fall into one of these two categories—that is, some life history traits influence only fecundity, not survival. Life history evolution has not traditionally been included in reviews of antipredator adaptations, however this chapter reveals that the conceptual link between life histories and predation broadens and refines our understanding of predation’s role in phenotype evolution.
While ecologists have long recognized the importance of predation in population- and community-level dynamics, a varied history exists for the study of predation’s role in influencing evolutionary change. Despite the wealth of antipredator adaptations present in organisms, research investigating the significance of predation in biological evolution has received considerably less attention than other ecological factors (e.g. competition, mate attraction). However, predation can generate divergent selection among prey populations in several different ways, and is predicted to represent a major source of evolutionary change. Recent empirical work supports this claim. This chapter reviews the varied forms of evolutionary strategies prey have evolved to mitigate malicious attempts of natural predators, and the potential importance of predators in driving phenotypic divergence and speciation.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aarnio K, Bonsdorff E (1997) Passing the gut of juvenile flounder, Platichthys flesus: differential survival of zoobenthic prey species. Marine Biology 129(1): 11–14
Abrams PA (2000) Character shifts of prey species that share predators. American Naturalist 156(4, Supplement): S45–S61
Abrams PA, Chen X (2002) The evolution of traits affecting resource acquisition and predator vulnerability: Character displacement under real and apparent competition. American Naturalist 160(5): 692–704
Abrams PA, Rowe L (1996) The effects of predation on the age and size of maturity of prey. Evolution 50(3): 1052–1061
Acharya L, Fenton MB (1992) Echolocation behaviour of vespertillionid bats (Lasiurus cinereus and Lasiurus borealis) attacking airborne targets including arctiid moths. Canadian Journal of Zoology 70: 1292–1298
Addicott JF (1974) Predation and prey community structure: an experimental study of the effect of mosquito larvae on the protozoan communities of pitcher plants. Ecology 55: 475–492
Agrawal AA, Tuzun S, Bent E (1999) Induced plant defenses against pathogens and herbivores: biochemistry, ecology, and agriculture. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN
Almany GR, Webster MS (2004) Odd species out as predators reduce diversity of coral-reef fishes. Ecology 85(11): 2933–2937
Andersson M (1994) Sexual selection. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Askew RR (1961) On the biology of the inhabitants of oak galls of Cynipidae (Hymenoptera) in Britain. Transactions of the Society for British Entomology 14: 237–268
Bates HW (1862) Contributions to an insect fauna of the Amazon valley. Lepidoptera: Heliconidae. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London 23:495–566
Beddard FE (1892) Animal coloration: an account of the principal facts and theories related to the colours and markings of animals. Swan Sonnenschein & Co., London
Bertram BC (1978) Predators and prey. In Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioral ecology: an evolutionary approach. Blackwell, Oxford 64–96
Blackledge TA, Coddington JA, Gillespie RG (2003) Are three-dimensional spider webs defensive adaptations? Ecology Letters 6(1): 13–18
Blake RW (1983) Fish locomotion. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Blake RW (2004) Fish functional design and swimming performance. Journal of Fish Biology 65(5): 1193–1222
Bond AB, Kamil AC (2002) Visual predators select for crypticity and polymorphism in virtual prey. Nature 415(6872): 609–613
Bond AB, Kamil AC (2006) Spatial heterogeneity, predator cognition, and the evolution of color polymorphism in virtual prey. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103(9): 3214–3219
Bowers DM (1993) Aposematic caterpillars: life-styles of the warningly colored and unpalatable. In Stamp NE, Casey TM (eds) Caterpillars: ecological and evolutionary constraints on foraging. Chapman & Hall, New York 331–371
Bowers RG, White A, Boots M, Geritz SAH, Kisdi E (2003) Evolutionary branching/speciation: contrasting results from systems with explicit or emergent carrying capacities. Evolutionary Ecology Research 5(6): 883–891
Boycott BB (1958) The cuttlefish-Sepia. New Biology 25: 98–118
Bradshaw AD (1965) Evolutionary significance of phenotypic plasticity in plants. Advances in Genetics 13: 115–155
Brakefield PM, Shreeve TM, Thomas JM (1992) Avoidance, concealment, and defence. In Dennis RLH (ed) The ecology of butterflies in Britain. Oxford University Press, Oxford 93–119
Brinkhof MWG, Cave AJ, Hage FJ, Verhulst S (1993) Timing of reproduction and fledging success in the coot Fulica atra: evidence for a causal relationship. Journal of Animal Ecology 62(3): 577–587
Brodie ED, Jr. (1968) Investigations on the skin toxin of the adult roughskinned newt, Taricha granulosa. Copeia: 307–313
Brooke MD (1998) Ecological factors influencing the occurrence of ‘flash marks’ in wading birds. Functional Ecology 12(3): 339–346
Brown JS (1999) Vigilance, patch use and habitat selection: foraging under predation risk. Evolutionary Ecology Research 1(1): 49–71
Brown JS, Vincent TL (1992) Organization of predator-prey communities as an evolutionary game. Evolution 46(5): 1269–1283
Buckling A, Rainey PB (2002) The role of parasites in sympatric and allopatric host diversification. Nature 420(6915): 496–499
Cain AJ, Sheppard PM (1954) Natural selection in Cepaea. Genetics 39: 89–116
Caldwell JP (1982) Disruptive selection: a tail color polymorphism in Acris tadpoles in response to differential predation. Canadian Journal of Zoology 60: 2818–2827
Caro TM (2005) Antipredator defenses in birds and mammals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Caumul R, Polly PD (2005) Phylogenetic and environmental components of morphological variation: skull, mandible, and molar shape in marmots (Marmota, Rodentia). Evolution 59(11): 2460–2472
Chapman LJ, Chapman CA, Chandler M (1996a) Wetland ecotones as refugia for endangered fishes. Biological Conservation 78(3): 263–270
Chapman LJ, Chapman CA, Nordlie FG, Rosenberger AE (2002) Physiological refugia: swamps, hypoxia tolerance and maintenance of fish diversity in the Lake Victoria region. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 133(3): 421–437
Chapman LJ, Chapman CA, Ogutu-Ohwayo R, Chandler M, Kaufman L, Keiter AE (1996b) Refugia for endangered fishes from an introduced predator in Lake Nabugabo, Uganda. Conservation Biology 10(2): 554–561
Chivers DP, Kiesecker JM, Marco A, DeVito J, Anderson MT, Blaustein AR (2001) Predator-induced life history changes in amphibians: egg predation induces hatching. Oikos 92(1): 135–142
Chivers DP, Smith RJF (1998) Chemical alarm signalling in aquatic predator-prey systems: a review and prospectus. Ecoscience 5(3): 338–352
Clarke B (1962) Balanced polymorphism and the diversity of sympatric species. Systematics Association Publications, London
Conover DO, Munch SB (2002) Sustaining fisheries yields over evolutionary time scales. Science 297(5578): 94–96
Cott HB (1940) Adaptive coloration in animals. Methuen, London
Coyne JA, Orr HA (2004) Speciation. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA
Crespi BJ, Sandoval CP (2000) Phylogenetic evidence for the evolution of ecological specialization in Timema walking-sticks. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 13(2): 249–262
Crowl TA, Covich AP (1990) Predator-induced life-history shifts in a freshwater snail. Science 247(4945): 949–950
Darling FF (1938) Bird flocks and breeding cycles. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Darwin C (1871) The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. John Murray, London
Dayton GH, Saenz D, Baum KA, Langerhans RB, DeWitt TJ (2005) Body shape, burst speed and escape behavior of larval anurans. Oikos 111(3): 582–591
de Ruiter PC, Wolters V, Moore JC (2005) Dynamic food webs: multispecies assemblages, ecosystem development and environmental change. Academic Press, Burlington, MA
DeVito J, Chivers DP, Kiesecker JM, Marco A, Wildy EL, Blaustein AR (1998) The effects of snake predation on metamorphosis of western toads, Bufo boreas (Amphibia, Bufonidae). Ethology 104(3): 185–193
DeWitt TJ (1996) Functional tradeoffs and phenotypic plasticity in the freshwater snail Physa. Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York
DeWitt TJ, Langerhans RB (2003) Multiple prey traits, multiple predators: keys to understanding complex community dynamics. Journal of Sea Research 49(2): 143–155
DeWitt TJ, Langerhans RB (2004) Integrated solutions to environmental heterogeneity: theory of multimoment reaction norms. In DeWitt TJ, Scheiner SM (eds) Phenotypic plasticity. Functional and conceptual approaches. Oxford University Press, New York 98–111
DeWitt TJ, Robinson BW, Wilson DS (2000) Functional diversity among predators of a freshwater snail imposes an adaptive trade-off for shell morphology. Evolutionary Ecology Research 2(2): 129–148
DeWitt TJ, Scheiner SM (2004) Phenotypic plasticity. Functional and conceptual approaches. Oxford University Press, New York
DeWitt TJ, Sih A, Hucko JA (1999) Trait compensation and cospecialization in a freshwater snail: size, shape and antipredator behavior. Animal Behaviour 58:397–407
Dice LR (1947) Effectiveness of selection by owls of deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) which contrast in colour with their background. Contributions from the Laboratory of Vertebrate Biology, University of Michigan 34: 1–20
Dobzhansky T (1951) Genetics and the origin of species. Columbia University Press
Dodson S (1989) Predator-induced reaction norms. Bioscience 39(7): 447–452
Doebeli M, Dieckmann U (2000) Evolutionary branching and sympatric speciation caused by different types of ecological interactions. American Naturalist 156(4, Supplement): S77–S101
Dohm MR, Hayes JP, Garland T (1996) Quantitative genetics of sprint running speed and swimming endurance in laboratory house mice (Mus domesticus). Evolution 50(4): 1688–1701
Domenici P (2003) Habitat, body design and the swimming performance of fish. In Bels VL, Gasc J-P Casinos A (eds) Vertebrate biomechanics and evolution. BIOS Scientific Publishers Ltd, Oxford 137–160
Domenici P, Blake RW (1997) The kinematics and performance of fish fast-start swimming. Journal of Experimental Biology 200(8): 1165–1178
Doucette LI, Skulason S, Snorrason SS (2004) Risk of predation as a promoting factor of species divergence in threespine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 82(2): 189–203
Downhower JF, Brown LP, Matsui ML (2000) Life history variation in female Gambusia hubbsi. Environmental Biology of Fishes 59(4): 415–428
Driver PM, Humphries DA (1988) Protean behavior: the biology of unpredictability. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Edmunds M (1974) Defence in animals: a survey of anti-predator defences. Longman, New York
Ehrlich PR, Raven PH (1964) Butterflies and plants: a study in coevolution. Evolution 18: 586–608
Eisner T, Meinwald J (1966) Defensive secretions of arthropods. Science 153:1341–1350
Eklöv P, Svanbäck R (2006) Predation risk influences adaptive morphological variation in fish populations. American Naturalist 167(3): 440–452
Elton CS (1927) Animal ecology. Sidgwick and Jackson, London
Endler JA (1978) A predator’s view of animal color patterns. Evolutionary Biology 11: 319–364
Endler JA (1991) Interactions between predators and prey. In Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford 169–196
Endler JA (1995) Multiple-trait coevolution and environmental gradients in guppies. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10(1): 22–29
Ewer RF (1966) Juvenile behaviour of the African ground squirrel, Xerus erythropus (E. Geoff.). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 23: 190–216
Farr JA (1975) Role of predation in evolution of social behavior of natural populations of the guppy, Poecilia reticulata (Pisces: Poeciliidae). Evolution 29(1): 151–158
Fryer G (1959) Some aspects of evolution in Lake Nyasa. Evolution 13: 440–451
Funk DJ (1998) Isolating a role for natural selection in speciation: host adaptation and sexual isolation in Neochlamisus bebbianae leaf beetles. Evolution 52(6): 1744–1759
Funk DJ, Nosil P, Etges WJ (2006) Ecological divergence exhibits consistently positive associations with reproductive isolation across disparate taxa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103(9): 3209–3213
Galton F (1871) Gregariousness in cattle and men. MacMillan’s Magazine 23:353–357
Gauthier-Clerc M, Tamisier A, Cezilly F (1998) Sleep-vigilance trade-off in green-winged teals (Anas crecca crecca). Canadian Journal of Zoology 76(12): 2214–2218
Ghalambor CK, Reznick DN, Walker JA (2004) Constraints on adaptive evolution: the functional trade-off between reproduction and fast-start swimming performance in the Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulata). American Naturalist 164(1): 38–50
Gilbert LE (1975) Ecological consequences of a coevolved mutualism between butterflies and plants. In Gilbert LE, Raven PH (eds) Coevolution of animals and plants. University of Texas Press, Austin 210–240
Gochfeld M (1982) Reproductive synchrony and predator satiation: an analogy between the Darling effect in birds and mast fruiting in plants. Auk 99: 586–587
Gotthard K, Nylin S (1995) Adaptive plasticity and plasticity as an adaptation: a selective review of plasticity in animal morphology and life-history. Oikos 74(1): 3–17
Gould SJ, Lewontin RC (1979) The spandrels of San Marco and the panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 205: 581–598
Greene HW (1988) Antipredator mechanisms in reptiles. In Gans C, Huey RB (eds) Biology of the reptilia. Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York 1–152
Hairston NG (1987) Diapause as a predator avoidance adaptation. In Kerfoot WC, Sih A (eds) Predation: direct and indirect impacts on aquatic communities. University Press of New England, Hanover, NH 281–290
Hale ME, Long JH, McHenry MJ, Westneat MW (2002) Evolution of behavior and neural control of the fast-start escape response. Evolution 56(5): 993–1007
Hamilton WD (1971) Geometry for the selfish herd. Journal of Theoretical Biology 31(2): 295–311
Hanifin CT, Yotsu-Yamashita M, Yasumoto T, Brodie ED (1999) Toxicity of dangerous prey: variation of tetrodotoxin levels within and among populations of the newt Taricha granulosa. Journal of Chemical Ecology 25(9): 2161–2175
Härlin C, Härlin M (2003) Towards a historization of aposematism. Evolutionary Ecology 17(2): 197–212
Harvey PH, Greenwood PJ (1978) Anti-predator defence strategies: some evolutionary problems. In Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford
Havel JE (1987) Predator-induced defenses: a review. In Kerfoot WC, Sih A (eds) Predation: direct and indirect impacts on aquatic communities. University Press of New England, Hanover, N.H. 263–278
Helfman G, Collette B, Facey D (1997) The Diversity of Fishes. Blackwell Science, Malden, MA
Hoff KV, Wassersug RJ (2000) Tadpole locomotion: axial movement and tail functions in a largely vertebraeless vertebrate. American Zoologist 40(1): 62–76
Holling CS (1959) The components of predation as revealed by a study of small mammal predation of the European pine sawfly. Canadian Entomologist 91:293–320
Holmes W (1940) The colour changes and colour paterns of Sepia officinalis L. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 110: 17–35
Holt RD (1977) Predation, apparent competition, and the structure of prey communities. Theoretical Population Biology 12: 197–229
Holt RD, Lawton JH (1994) The ecological consequences of shared natural enemies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 25: 495–520
Honma A, Oku S, Nishida T (2006) Adaptive significance of death feigning posture as a specialized inducible defence against gape-limited predators. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 273(1594): 1631–1636
Houde AE (1997) Sex, color, and mate choice in guppies. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
Hoverman JT, Auld JR, Relyea RA (2005) Putting prey back together again: integrating predator-induced behavior, morphology, and life history. Oecologia 144(3): 481–491
Hoy R, Nolen T, Brodfuehrer P (1989) The neuroethology of acoustic startle and escape in flying insects. Journal of Experimental Biology 146: 287–306
Hubbs C (1996) Geographic variation in life history traits of Gambusia species. Proceedings of the Desert Fishes Council 27: 1–21
Huffaker CB (1958) Experimental studies on predation: dispersion factors and predator-prey oscillations. Hilgardia 27: 343–383
Humphries DA, Driver PM (1967) Erratic display as a device against predators. Science 156: 1767–1768
Humphries DA, Driver PM (1971) Protean defence by prey animals. Oecologia 5:285–302
Ims RA (1990) On the adaptive value of reproductive synchrony as a predator-swamping strategy. American Naturalist 136(4): 485–498
Isley FB (1938) Survival value of acridian protective coloration. Ecology 19(3): 370–389
Istock CA (1967) The evolution of complex life cycle phenomena: and ecological perspective. Evolution 21: 592–605
Jackson DA, Peres-Neto PR, Olden JD (2001) What controls who is where in freshwater fish communities-the roles of biotic, abiotic, and spatial factors. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58(1): 157–170
Janzen DH (1981) Evolutionary physiology of personal defense. In Townsend CR, Calow P (eds) Physiological ecology: an evolutionary approach to resource use. Blackwell, Oxford 145–164
Janzen FJ, Tucker JK, Paukstis GL (2000) Experimental analysis of an early life-history stage: avian predation selects for larger body size of hatchling turtles. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 13(6): 947–954
Jeffries MJ, Lawton JH (1984) Enemy free space and the structure of ecological communities. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 23: 269–286
Jiggins CD, Estrada C, Rodrigues A (2004) Mimicry and the evolution of premating isolation in Heliconius melpomene Linnaeus. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 17(3): 680–691
Jiggins CD, Naisbit RE, Coe RL, Mallet J (2001) Reproductive isolation caused by colour pattern mimicry. Nature 411(6835): 302–305
Karban R, Baldwin IT (1997) Induced responses to herbivory. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Kenward RE (1978) Hawks and doves: factors affecting success and selection in goshawk attacks on wood pigeons. Journal of Animal Ecology 47: 449–460
Kerfoot WC, Sih A (1987) Predation: direct and indirect impacts on aquatic communities. University Press of New England, Hanover, NH.
Kettlewell HBD (1956) Further selection experiments on industrial melanism in the Lepidoptera. Heredity 10: 287–301
Kiltie RA (1988) Countershading: universally deceptive or deceptively universal. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3(1): 21–23
Koehl MAR (1996) When does morphology matter? Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 27: 501–542
Komárek S (1998) Mimicry, aposematism and related phenomena in animals and plants: bibliography 1800–1990. Vesmir, Prague
Kotler BP, Brown JS (1988) Environmental heterogeneity and the coexistence of desert rodents. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 19: 281–307
Kozlowski J, Uchmanski J (1987) Optimal individual growth and reproduction in perennial species with indeterminate growth. Evolutionary Ecology 1: 214–230
Krumholz L (1963) Relationships between fertility, sex ratio, and exposure to predation in populations of the mosquitofish, Gambusia manni at Bimini, Bahamas. Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie 48: 201–256
Lack D (1954) The natural regulation of animal numbers. Clarendon, Oxford
Lande R, Arnold SJ (1983) The measurement of selection on correlated characters. Evolution 37(6): 1210–1226
Langerhans RB, DeWitt TJ (2004) Shared and unique features of evolutionary diversification. American Naturalist 164(3): 335–349
Langerhans RB, Layman CA, DeWitt TJ (2005) Male genital size reflects a tradeoff between attracting mates and avoiding predators in two live-bearing fish species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102(21): 7618–7623
Langerhans RB, Layman CA, Shokrollahi AM, DeWitt TJ (2004) Predator-driven phenotypic diversification in Gambusia affinis. Evolution 58(10): 2305–2318
Levins R (1968) Evolution in changing environments. Princeton University Press, NJ.
Lev-Yadun S, Dafni A, Inbar M, Izhaki I, Ne’eman G (2002) Colour patterns in vegetative parts of plants deserve more research attention. Trends in Plant Science 7: 59–60
Lima SL, Dill LM (1990) Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus. Canadian Journal of Zoology 68(4): 619–640
Lindeman RL (1942) The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology. Ecology 23: 377–418
Lingle S (2002) Coyote predation and habitat segregation of white-tailed deer and mule deer. Ecology 83(7): 2037–2048
Lloyd DG (1987) Selection of offspring size at independence and other size-versus-number strategies. American Naturalist 129(6): 800–817
Lloyd M, Dybas HS (1966) The periodical cicada problem. I. Population ecology. Evolution 20(2): 133–149
MacArthur RH (1962) Some generalized theorems of natural selection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 48: 1893–1897
MacArthur RH, Wilson EO (1967) The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
Magurran AE, Seghers, B.H., Shaw PW, Carvalho GR (1995) The behavioral diversity and evolution of guppy, Poecilia reticulata, populations in Trinidad. Advances in the study of behavior 24: 155–202
Mallet J, Joron M (1999) Evolution of diversity in warning color and mimicry: polymorphisms, shifting balance, and speciation. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 30: 201–233
Mallet J, McMillan WO, Jiggins CD (1998) Mimicry and warning color at the boundary between races and species. In Howard DJ, Berlocher SH (eds) Endless forms: species and speciation. Oxford University Press, New York 390–403
Mangel M, Clark CW (1988) Dynamic modeling in behavioral ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Mayr E (1942) Systematics and the origin of species. Columbia University Press, New York
McCollum SA, Van Buskirk J (1996) Costs and benefits of a predator-induced polyphenism in the gray treefrog Hyla chrysoscelis. Evolution 50(2): 583–593
McMillan WO, Jiggins CD, Mallet J (1997) What initiates speciation in passionvine butterflies? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94(16): 8628–8633
McPeek MA (1995) Morphological evolution mediated by behavior in the damselflies of two communities. Evolution 49(4): 749–769
McPeek MA (1997) Measuring phenotypic selection on an adaptation: lamellae of damselflies experiencing dragonfly predation. Evolution 51(2): 459–466
McPeek MA (1999) Biochemical evolution associated with antipredator adaptation in damselflies. Evolution 53(6): 1835–1845
McPeek MA, Schrot AK, Brown JM (1996) Adaptation to predators in a new community: swimming performance and predator avoidance in damselflies. Ecology 77(2): 617–629
McPeek MA, Wellborn GA (1998) Genetic variation and reproductive isolation among phenotypically divergent amphipod populations. Limnology and Oceanography 43(6): 1162–1169
Mcphail JD (1969) Predation and the evolution of a stickleback (Gasterosteus). Journal of Fisheries Research Board of Canada 26: 3183–3208
Miller RC (1922) The significance of the gregarious habit. Ecology 3(2): 122–126
Moran AL, Emlet RB (2001) Offspring size and performance in variable environments: field studies on a marine snail. Ecology 82(6): 1597–1612
Morgan MJ, Godin J-GJ (1985) Antipredator benefits of schooling behaviour in a cyprinodontid fish, the banded killifish (Fundulus diaphanus). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 70: 236–246
Mostler G (1935) Beobachtungen zur frage der wespenmimikry. Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Ökologie der Tiere 29: 381–454
Müller F (1879) Ituna and Thyridia; a remarkable case of mimicry in butterflies. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London: xx–xxix
Myers JH, Bazely D (1991) Thorns, spines, prickles, and hairs: are they stimulated by herbivory and do they deter herbivores? In Tallamy DW, Raupp MJ (eds) Phytochemical induction by herbivores. John Wiley and Sons, New York 325–345
Naisbit RE, Jiggins CD, Mallet J (2003) Mimicry: developmental genes that contribute to speciation. Evolution & Development 5(3): 269–280
Newman RA (1988) Adaptive plasticity in development of Scaphiopus couchii tadpoles in desert ponds. Evolution 42(4): 774–783
Norris KS, Lowe CH (1964) An analysis of background color-matching in amphibians and reptiles. Ecology 45(3): 565–580
Nosil P (2004) Reproductive isolation caused by visual predation on migrants between divergent environments. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 271(1547): 1521–1528
Nosil P, Crespi BJ (2006a) Ecological divergence promotes the evolution of cryptic reproductive isolation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 273: 991–997
Nosil P, Crespi BJ (2006b) Experimental evidence that predation promotes divergence in adaptive radiation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103(24): 9090–9095
Nosil P, Crespi BJ, Sandoval CP (2002) Host-plant adaptation drives the parallel evolution of reproductive isolation. Nature 417(6887): 440–443
Nosil P, Crespi BJ, Sandoval CP (2003) Reproductive isolation driven by the combined effects of ecological adaptation and reinforcement. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 270(1527): 1911–1918
Nosil P, Vines TH, Funk DJ (2005) Perspective: reproductive isolation caused by natural selection against immigrants from divergent habitats. Evolution 59(4): 705–719
Owen DF (1963) Polymorphism and population density in the African land snail Limicolaria martensiana. Science 140: 666–667
Paine RT (1966) Food web complexity and species diversity. American Naturalist 100(910): 65–76
Palleroni A, Miller CT, Hauser M, Marler P (2005) Predation Prey plumage adaptation against falcon attack. 434(7036): 973–974
Peacor SD, Werner EE (2001) The contribution of trait-mediated indirect effects to the net effects of a predator. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98(7): 3904–3908
Pigliucci M (2001) Phenotypic plasticity. Beyond nature and nature. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD
Pigliucci M, Murren CJ (2003) Genetic assimilation and a possible evolutionary paradox: can macroevolution sometimes be so fast as to pass us by? Evolution 57(7): 1455–1464
Pigliucci M, Preston K (2004) The evolutionary biology of complex phenotypes. Oxford University Press, New York
Pimm SL (1982) Food Webs. Chapman and Hall, London, England
Polis GA, Winemiller KO (1996) Food webs: integration of patterns & dynamics. Chapman & Hall, New York
Poulton EB (1890) The colours of animals: their meaning and use especially considered in the case of insects. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co. Ltd., London
Poulton EB (1902) The meaning of the white undersides of animals. Nature 65: 596
Price TD, Qvarnstrom A, Irwin DE (2003) The role of phenotypic plasticity in driving genetic evolution. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 270(1523): 1433–1440
Pulliam HR (1973) On the advantages of flocking. Journal of Theoretical Biology 38(2): 419–422
Pulliam HR, Caraco T (1984) Living in groups: is there an optimal group size? In Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA 122–147
Reidy S, Kerr S, Nelson J (2000) Aerobic and anaerobic swimming performance of individual Atlantic cod. Journal of Experimental Biology 203(2): 347–357
Reimchen TE (1994) Predators and morphological evolution in threespine stickleback. In Bell MA, Foster SA (eds) The evolutionary biology of the threespine stickleback. Oxford University Press, Oxford 240–276
Reimchen TE, Nosil P (2002) Temporal variation in divergent selection on spine number in threespine stickleback. Evolution 56(12): 2472–2483
Reimchen TE, Nosil P (2004) Variable predation regimes predict the evolution of sexual dimorphism in a population of threespine stickleback. Evolution 58(6): 1274–1281
Relyea RA (2002) Local population differences in phenotypic plasticity: predatorinduced changes in wood frog tadpoles. Ecological Monographs 72(1): 77–93
Reznick DN (1996) Life history evolution in guppies: a model system for the empirical study of adaptation. Netherlands Journal of Zoology 46(3–4): 172–190
Reznick DN, Bryant M, Holmes D (2006a) The evolution of senescence and postreproductive lifespan in guppies (Poecilia reticulata). PLoS Biology 4(1): 136–143
Reznick DN, Bryga H, Endler JA (1990) Experimentally induced life-history evolution in a natural population. Nature 346(6282): 357–359
Reznick DN, Butler MJ, Rodd FH, Ross P (1996) Life-history evolution in guppies (Poecilia reticulata). 6. Differential mortality as a mechanism for natural selection. Evolution 50(4): 1651–1660
Reznick DN, Endler JA (1982) The impact of predation on life history evolution in Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata). Evolution 36: 160–177
Reznick DN, Schultz E, Morey S, Roff D (2006b) On the virtue of being the first born: the influence of date of birth on fitness in the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. Oikos 113(1): 135–147
Reznick DN, Shaw FH, Rodd FH, Shaw RG (1997) Evaluation of the rate of evolution in natural populations of guppies (Poecilia reticulata). Science 275(5308): 1934–1937
Rice WR, Hostert EE (1993) Laboratory experiments on speciation: what have we learned in 40 years? Evolution 47(6): 1637–1653
Ricklefs RE, O’Rourke K (1975) Aspect diversity in moths: a temperate-tropical comparison. Evolution 29: 313–324
Rigby MC, Jokela J (2000) Predator avoidance and immune defense: costs and trade-offs in snails. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series BBiological Sciences 267: 171–176
Riley AM, Loxdale HD (1988) Possible adaptive significance of “tail” structure in “false head” lycaenid butterflies. Entomologists Record and Journal of Variation 84: 349–365
Robinson BW, Parsons KJ (2002) Changing times, spaces, and faces: tests and implications of adaptive morphological plasticity in the fishes of northern postglacial lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 59(11): 1819–1833
Robinson MH (1969) Defenses against visually hunting predators. In Dobzhansky T, Hecht MK, Steere WC (eds) Evolutionary Biology. Meredith Corporation, New York
Roeder KD (1962) The behaviour of free flying moths in the presence of artificial ultrasonic pulses. Animal Behaviour 10: 300–304
Roeder KD (1965) Moths and ultrasound. Scientific American 212(4): 94–102
Roff DA (1992) The evolution of life histories: theory and analysis. Chapman & Hall, New York
Roff DA (2002) Life history evolution. Sinauer Associates Inc., Sunderland, MA
Rundle HD, Nagel L, Boughman JW, Schluter D (2000) Natural selection and parallel speciation in sympatric sticklebacks. Science 287(5451): 306–308
Rundle HD, Nosil P (2005) Ecological speciation. Ecology Letters 8(3): 336–352
Rundle HD, Vamosi SM, Schluter D (2003) Experimental test of predation’s effect on divergent selection during character displacement in sticklebacks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100(25): 14943–14948
Ruxton GD, Sherratt TN, Speed MP (2004) Avoiding attack: the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals and mimicry. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Rydell J, Jones G, Waters D (1995) Echolocating bats and hearing moths: who are the winners. Oikos 73(3): 419–424
Saenz D, Johnson JB, Adams CK, Dayton GH (2003) Accelerated hatching of southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala) eggs in response to the presence of a crayfish (Procambarus nigrocinctus) predator. Copeia (3): 646–649
Sandoval CP (1994) Differential visual predation on morphs of Timema cristinae (Phasmatodeae: Timemidae) and its consequences for host range. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 52(4): 341–356
Schaack S, Chapman LJ (2003) Interdemic variation in the African cyprinid Barbus neumayeri: correlations among hypoxia, morphology, and feeding performance. Canadian Journal of Zoology 81(3): 430–440
Scheiner SM (1993) Genetics and evolution of phenotypic plasticity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 24(35–68): 35–68
Schlichting CD (2004) The role of phenotypic plasticity in diversification. In DeWitt TJ, Scheiner SM (eds) Phenotypic plasticity. Functional and conceptual approaches. Oxford University Press, New York 191–200
Schlichting CD, Pigliucci M (1998) Phenotypic evolution: a reaction norm perspective. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA
Schluter D (2000) The ecology of adaptive radiation. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Schluter D (2001) Ecology and the origin of species. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16(7): 372–380
Seghers BH (1974) Schooling behavior in the guppy (Poecilia reticulata): an evolutionary response to predation. Evolution 28: 486–489
Shurin JB, Allen EG (2001) Effects of competition, predation, and dispersal on species richness at local and regional scales. American Naturalist 158(6): 624–637
Sih A (1987) Predators and prey lifestyles: an evolutionary and ecological overview. In Kerfoot WC, Sih A (eds) Predation: Direct and Indirect Impacts on Aquatic Communities. University Press of New England, Hanover, NH 203–224
Sohn JJ (1977) Consequences of predation and competition upon demography of Gambusia manni (Pisces: Poeciliidae). Copeia: 224–227
Stanley SM (1979) Macroevolution, pattern and process. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco
Stearns SC, Crandall RE (1981) Quantitative predictions of delayed maturity. Evolution 35(3): 455–463
Steets JA, Salla R, Ashman TL (2006) Herbivory and competition interact to affect reproductive traits and mating system expression in Impatiens capensis. American Naturalist 167(4): 591–600
Stein RA (1979) Behavioral response of prey to fish predators. In Stroud RH, Clepper H (eds) Predator-prey systems in fisheries management. Sport Fishing Institute, Washington, D.C.
Stemberger RS, Gilbert JJ (1987) Defenses of planktonic rotifers against predators. In Kerfoot WC, Sih A (eds) Predation: direct and indirect impacts on aquatic communities. University Press of New England, Hanover, NH 227–239
Stoks R, Nystrom JL, May ML, McPeek MA (2005) Parallel evolution in ecological and reproductive traits to produce cryptic damselfly species across the holarctic. Evolution 59(9): 1976–1988
Sumner FB (1934) Does protective coloration protect? Results of some experiments with fishes and birds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 20(10): 559–564
Thayer AH (1896) The law which underlies protective coloration. Auk 13(2): 124–129
Thomson AL (1950) Factors determining the breeding seasons of birds: an introductory review. Ibis 92: 173–184
Tollrian R, Harvell CD (1999) The ecology and evolution of inducible defenses. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Treat AE (1955) The response to sound in certain Lepidoptera. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 48: 272–284
Trehorne JE, Foster WA (1980) The effects of group size on predator avoidance in a marine insect. Animal Behaviour 28: 1119–1122
Vamosi SM (2002) Predation sharpens the adaptive peaks: survival trade-offs in sympatric sticklebacks. Annales Zoologici Fennici 39(3): 237–248
Vamosi SM (2003) The presence of other fish species affects speciation in threespine sticklebacks. Evolutionary Ecology Research 5(5): 717–730
Vamosi SM (2005) On the role of enemies in divergence and diversification of prey: a review and synthesis. Canadian Journal of Zoology 83(7): 894–910
Vamosi SM, Schluter D (2002) Impacts of trout predation on fitness of sympatric sticklebacks and their hybrids. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 269(1494): 923–930
Vamosi SM, Schluter D (2004) Character shifts in the defensive armor of sympatric sticklebacks. Evolution 58(2): 376–385
Van Buskirk J, Anderwald P, Lupold S, Reinhardt L, Schuler H (2003) The lure effect, tadpole tail shape, and the target of dragonfly strikes. Journal of Herpetology 37(2): 420–424
Vanhooydonck B, Van Damme R, Aerts P (2001) Speed and stamina trade-off in lacertid lizards. Evolution 55(5): 1040–1048
Van Noordwijk AJ, Mccleery RH, Perrins CM (1995) Selection for the timing of great tit breeding in relation to caterpillar growth and temperature. Journal of Animal Ecology 64(4): 451–458
Vermeij GJ (1982) Unsuccessful predation and evolution. American Naturalist 120(6): 701–720
Vermeij GJ (1987) Evolution and Escalation. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Videler JJ (1993) Fish swimming. Chapman & Hall, London
Vine I (1971) Risk of visual detection and pursuit by a predator and the selective advantage of flocking behaviour. Journal of Theoretical Biology 30(2): 405–422
Vinyard G (1979) An ostracod (Cypriodopsis vidua) can reduce predation from fish by resisting digestion. American Midland Naturalist 102(1): 188–190
Viscido SV, Miller M, Wethey DS (2001) The response of a selfish herd to an attack from outside the group perimeter. Journal of Theoretical Biology 208(3): 315–328
Vogel S (1994) Life in moving fluids. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Vonesh JR (2005) Egg predation and predator-induced hatching plasticity in the African reed frog, Hyperolius spinigularis. Oikos 110(2): 241–252
Walker JA (1997) Ecological morphology of lacustrine threespine stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus L. (Gasterosteidae) body shape. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 61(1): 3–50
Walker JA, Bell MA (2000) Net evolutionary trajectories of body shape evolution within a microgeographic radiation of threespine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Journal of Zoology 252: 293–302
Walker JA, Ghalambor CK, Griset OL, McKenney D, Reznick DN (2005) Do faster starts increase the probability of evading predators? Functional Ecology 19(5): 808–815
Wallace AR (1879) The protective colours of animals. In Brown R (ed) Science for all. Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co., London 128–137
Warkentin KM (1995) Adaptive plasticity in hatching age: a response to predation risk trade-offs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 92(8): 3507–3510
Waters DA (2003) Bats and moths: what is there left to learn? Physiological Entomology 28(4): 237–250
Webb PW (1984) Body form, locomotion, and foraging in aquatic vertebrates. American Zoologist 24: 107–120
Webb PW (1986) Locomotion and predator-prey relationships. In Lauder GV, Feder ME (eds) Predator-Prey Relationships. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 24–41
Wellborn GA, Skelly DK, Werner EE (1996) Mechanisms creating community structure across a freshwater habitat gradient. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 27: 337–363.
Welty JC (1934) Experiments in group behavior of fishes. Physiological Zoology 7: 85–128
Werner EE, Anholt BR (1993) Ecological consequences of the trade-off between growth and mortality rates mediated by foraging activity. American Naturalist 142(2): 242–272
West-Eberhard MJ (1989) Phenotypic plasticity and the origins of diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 20: 249–278
West-Eberhard MJ (2003) Developmental plasticity and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Wiklund C, Tullberg BS (2004) Seasonal polyphenism and leaf mimicry in the comma butterfly. Animal Behaviour 68(3): 621–627
Wilbur HM (1980) Complex Life Cycles. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11: 67–93
Will U (1986) Mauthner neurons survive metamorphosis in anurans: a comparative study HRP study on the cytoarchitecture of the Mauthner neuron in amphibians. Journal of Comparative Neurology 244: 111–120
Williams GC (1966) Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton University of Press, Princeton
Wilson RS, James RS, Van Damme R (2002) Trade-offs between speed and endurance in the frog Xenopus laevis: a multi-level approach. Journal of Experimental Biology 205(8): 1145–1152
Worthington EB (1940) Geographical differentiation in freshwaters with special reference to fish. In Huxley J (ed The new systematics. Oxford University Press, Oxford 287–303
Yack JE, Fullard JH (2000) Ultrasonic hearing in nocturnal butterflies. Nature 403(6767): 265–266
Zaret TM (1980) Predation and freshwater communities. Yale University Press, New Haven
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2007 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Langerhans, R.B. (2007). Evolutionary consequences of predation: avoidance, escape, reproduction, and diversification. In: Elewa, A.M.T. (eds) Predation in Organisms. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-46046-6_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-46046-6_10
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-46044-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-46046-6
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)