Abstract
Risk has two components: a known threat, which in the context of toxicology is called a hazard, and an exposure situation. In toxicology, risk assessment requires quantification of the two components: (1) the hazard which is the possible health impairment, given by the inherent toxicological and physicochemical properties of a substance. This is called hazard identification, and combined with dose-response characterisation it becomes, hazard assessment, and (2) the exposure which has to be assessed and quantified. The ratio of hazard assessment and exposure assessment is the probability that under a given exposure situation, a specified health impairment will materialise.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
- 2.
- 3.
It should be noted that the terms “(sub)acute” and “(sub)chronic” are terms which are not favoured by the authors of this book to characterise the duration of exposure.
References
Abass K, Koiranen M, Mazej D, Tratnik JS, Horvat M, Hakkola J, Järvelin MR, Rautio A (2017) Arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury levels in blood of Finnish adults and their relation to diet, lifestyle habits and sociodemographic variables. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(2):1347–1362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7824-5. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
Adami HO, Berry SCL, Breckenridge CB, Smith LL, Swenberg JA, Trichopoulos D, Weiss NS, Pastoor TP (2011) Toxicology and epidemiology: improving the science with a framework for combining toxicological and epidemiological evidence to establish causal inference. Toxicol Sci 122(2):223–234. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfr113. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
AEGL (2001) Standing operating procedures for developing acute exposure guideline levels for hazardous chemicals. National Academy of Sciences., Washington, DC
Baker M (2016) 1,500 scientists lift the lid on reproducibility. Nature 533:452–454
Barros AJ, Hirakata VN (2003) Alternatives for logistic regression in cross-sectional studies: an empirical comparison of models that directly estimate the prevalence ratio. BMC Med Res Methodol 3(1):21. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-3-21. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
Batke M, Escher S, Hoffmann-Doerr S, Melber C, Messinger H, Mangelsdorf I (2011) Evaluation of time extrapolation factors based on the database RepDose. Toxicol Lett 205(2):122–129
Bauch C, Kolle SN, Ramirez T, Eltze T, Fabian E, Mehling A, Teubner W, van Ravenzwaay B, Landsiedel R (2012) Putting the parts together: combining in vitro methods to test for skin sensitizing potentials. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 63(3):489–504
Belkebir E, Rousselle C, Duboudin C, Bodin L, Bonvallot N (2011) Habers rule duration adjustments should not be used systematically for risk assessment in public health decision-making. Toxicol Lett 204(2–3):148–155
BfR (2014) 3rd updated and revised edition of the EU Food Safety Almanac. http://www.bfr.bund.de/en/search.html?search%5Bquery%5D=food+safety+almanac. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
BfR (2015) Guidelines on uncertainty analysis in exposure assessments. Recommendation of the committee for exposure assessment and exposure standardisation of the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR). Available at: http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/350/guidelines-on-uncertainty-analysis-in-exposure-assessments.pdf. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
BfR (2016) Risk communication. http://www.bfr.bund.de/en/risk_communication-1834.html. Accessed 28 Oct 2019
Bokkers BG, Slob W (2005) A comparison of ratio distributions based on the NOAEL and the benchmark approach for subchronic-to-chronic extrapolation. Toxicol Sci 85(2):1033–1040
Borgerson K (2009) Valuing evidence bias and the evidence hierarchy of evidence-based medicine. Perspect Biol Med 52(2):218–233
Bos PM, Zeilmaker MJ, van Eijkeren JCH (2006) Application of physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling in setting acute exposure guideline levels for methylene chloride. Toxicol Sci 91(2):576–585
Bourguignon D (2015) The precautionary principle: definitions, applications and governance. European Parliamentary Research Service, European Union, December 2015—PE 573.876. isbn:978-92-823-8480-0; https://doi.org/10.2861/821468. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
Boxenbaum H (1982) Interspecies scaling, allometry, physiological time, and the ground plan of pharmacokinetics. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 10:201–227
Bruinen de Bruin Y, Hakkinen PB, Lahaniatis M, Papameletiou D, Del Pozo C, Reina V, Van Engelen J, Heinemeyer G, Viso AC, Rodriguez C, Jantunen M (2007) Risk management measures for chemicals in consumer products: documentation, assessment, and communication across the supply chain. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 17(Suppl 1):S55–S66
C8 Panel (2017) The C8 panel website. http://www.c8sciencepanel.org/. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
CAC (1999) Principles and guidelines for the conduct of microbiological risk assessment (CAC/GL 30-1999, adopted 1999, amendments 2012, 2014)
Cade JE, Burley VJ, Alwan NA, Hutchinson J, Hancock N, Morris MA, Threapleton DE, Greenwood DC (2015) Cohort profile: the UK women’s cohort study (UKWCS). Int J Epidemiol 5:567–587. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyv173. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
CDC (2016) Gateway to health communication & social marketing practice. http://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/Risks/index.html
Checkoway H, Pearce N, Kriebel D (2007) Selecting appropriate study designs to address specific research questions in occupational epidemiology. Occup Environ Med 64(9):633–638
Chen L-W, Wu Y, Neelakantan N, Chong MF-F, Pan A, van Dam RM (2016) Maternal caffeine intake during pregnancy and risk of pregnancy loss: a categorical and dose–response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Public Health Nutr 19(7):1233–1244. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980015002463. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
Covello VT (1992) Risk communication: an emerging area of health communication research. In: Deetz SA (ed) Communication yearbook 15. Sage, Newbury Park, CA, pp 359–373
Dekant W (2016) Toxicology and the reproducibility crisis: Scientific publishing, hazard assessment and risk characterisation. Toxicol Lett 263:76–77
Den Hond E, Tournaye H, De Sutter P, Ombelet W, Baeyens W, Covaci A, Cox B, Nawrot TS, Van Larebeke N, D’Hooghe T (2015) Human exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals and fertility: a case-control study in male subfertility patients. Environ Int 84:154–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.07.017. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
ECHA (2012) Guidance on information requirements and chemical safety assessment Chapter R.8: characterisation of dose [concentration]-response for human health https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13632/information_requirements_r8_en.pdf. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
ECHA (2014) Guidance on information requirements and chemical safety assessment Chapter E. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13632/information_requirements_part_e_en.pdf. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
ECHA (2017) Guidance on the biocidal products regulation volume III: human health, part b: risk assessment. Version 1.1, April 2015. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/23036412/biocides_guidance_human_health_ra_iii_part_bc_en.pdf/30d53d7d-9723-7db4-357a-ca68739f5094. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
EEA (2001) Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle 1896–2000. Environmental issue report No 22, EEA (European Environmental Agency) Copenhagen, 211 pp. https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/environmental_issue_report_2001_22. Accessed 8 Mar 2018
EEA (2013) Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation. Summary. EEA (European Environmental Agency) Report No 1/2013, EEA (European Environmental Agency) Copenhagen, 44 pp. https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/late-lessons-2. Accessed 8 Mar 2018
EFSA (2007) Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Plant protection products and their Residues on a request from the commission on the Acute Reference Dose (ARfD) for imazalil. (Question N° EFSA-Q-2006-202) adopted on 7 March 2007. https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2007.460. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
EFSA (2009a) Scientific opinion of the panel on contaminants in the food chain on a request from the European Commission on cadmium in food. EFSA J 980:1–139. http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/980. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
EFSA (2009b) Use of the benchmark dose approach in risk assessment. Guidance of the Scientific Committee. EFSA J 1150:1–72. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1150/abstract. Accessed 8 Mar 2018
EFSA (2010a) Statement on the safety evaluation of smoke flavourings primary products: interpretation of the margin of safety EFSA. EFSA J 8(1):1325. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1325/full. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
EFSA (2010b) Scientific opinion on lead in food. EFSA J 8:1570, 1147 pp. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1570. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1570/full. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
EFSA (2012a) Scientific committee guidance on selected default values to be used by the EFSA scientific committee, scientific panels and units in the absence of actual measured data. EFSA J: 10(3):2579. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2579/abstract. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
EFSA (2012b) Scientific opinion on exploring options for providing advice about possible human health risks based on the concept of Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC). EFSA J;10(7):2750 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2750/abstract. Accessed 8 Mar 2018
EFSA (2014) Modern methodologies and tools for human hazard assessment of chemicals. EFSA J 12(4):3638. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3638/full. Accessed 8 Mar 2018
EFSA (2015) Scientific opinion on the re-evaluation of sorbic acid (E 200), potassium sorbate (E 202) and calcium sorbate (E 203) as food additives. EFSA J 13(6): 4144. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4144/full. Accessed 8 Mar 2018
EFSA (2016) Guidance on uncertainty in scientific assessment. Revised Draft. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/160321DraftGDUncertaintyInScientificAssessment.pdf. Accessed 8 Mar 2018
EFSA (2017a) Update: guidance on the use of the benchmark dose approach in risk assessment. EFSA J;15(1):4658, 41 pp. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4658/full. Accessed 8 Mar 2018
EFSA (2017b) Guidance on the use of the weight of evidence approach in scientific assessments. EFSA J;15(8): 4971, 69 pp. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/4971. Accessed 8 Mar 2018
EFSA (2019) Guidance on the use of the threshold of toxicological concern approach in food safety assessment. EFSA J 17:4. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/consultations/call/181112
EU (2000) Communication from the Commission about the precautionary principle Brussels, 02 February 2000 COM. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52000DC0001&from=EN. Accessed 8 Mar 2018
Fei C, McLaughlin JK, Lipworth L, Olsen J (2008) Prenatal exposure to perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and maternally reported developmental milestones in infancy. Environ Health Perspect 116(10):1391–1395. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11277
Geraets L, Nijkamp MM, ter Burg W (2016) Critical elements for human health risk assessment of less than lifetime exposures. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 81:362–371
Gibson TM, Ferrucci LM, Tangrea JA, Schatzkin A (2010) Epidemiological and clinical studies of nutrition. Semin Oncol 37(3):282–296
Greenland S, Lash TL (2008) Bias analysis. In: Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL (eds) Modern Epidemiology, 3rd edn. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp 345–380
Greenland S, Rothman KJ, Lash T (2008) Measures of effect and measures of association. In: Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL (eds) Modern epidemiology, 3rd edn. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp 51–70
Greenland S, Senn SJ, Rothman KJ, Carlin JB, Poole C, Goodman SN, Altman DG (2016) Statistical tests, P values, confidence intervals, and power: a guide to misinterpretations. Eur J Epidemiol 31(4):337–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-016-0149-3. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
Haber F (1924) Zur Geschichte des Gaskrieges. In: Fünf Vorträge aus den Jahren 1920–1923. Verlag von Julius Sprenger, Berlin, pp 23–29
Haber LT, Sandhu R, Li-Muller A, Mohapatra A, Petrovic S, Meek ME (2016) Framework for human health risk assessment of non-cancer effects resulting from short-duration and intermittent exposures to chemicals. J Appl Toxicol 36:1077–1089
Halle W (1998) Toxicity tests in cell cultures for the purpose of predicting acute toxicity (LD50) and reducing the number of animal experiments. Schr Forschungszent Juelich, Lebenswiss/Life Sci 1:1–92
Haritz M (2011) An inconvenient deliberation: the precautionary principles contribution to the uncertainties surrounding climate change liability. In: Climate change law, policy, and practice series, vol 5. Wolters Kluwer Law & Business, Alphen aan den Rijn, pp 391–437
Hébert JR, Frongillo EA, Adams SA, Turner-McGrievy GM, Hurley TG, Miller DR, Ockene IS (2016) Perspective: randomized controlled trials are not a panacea for diet-related research. Adv Nutr 7(3):423–432
Hogue CJ, Gaylor DW, Schulz KF (1983) Estimators of relative risk for case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol 118(3):396–407. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6613982
Howick J, Chalmers I, Glasziou P, Greenhalgh T, Heneghan C, Liberati A, Moschetti I, Phillips B, Thornton H, Goddard Hodgkinson M (2011) Oxford Centre for evidence-based medicine 2011 levels of evidence. Retrieved January 31, 2017, from http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=5653
IPCC (2008) Climate change 2007: synthesis report. Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK, Reisinger A (eds) Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. IPCC, Geneva, 104 pp. isbn:92-9169-122-4
Johansen K, Brasseur D, MacDonald N, Nohynek H, Vandeputte J, Wood D, Neels P (2016) Scientific Committee of International Alliance for Biological Standardisation. Where are we in our understanding of the association between narcolepsy and one of the 2009 adjuvanted influenza A (H1N1) vaccines? Biologicals 44(4):276–280
Kramer HJ, van den Ham WA, Slob W, Pieters MN (1996) Conversion factors estimating indicative chronic no-observed-adverse-effect levels from short-term toxicity data. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 23(3):249–255
Kroes R, Galli C, Munro I, Schilter B, Tran L, Walker R, Würtzen G (2000) Threshold of toxicological concern for chemical substances present in the diet: a practical tool for assessing the need for toxicity testing. Food Chem Toxicol 38(2–3):255–312
Kroes R, Kleiner J, Renwick A (2005) The threshold of toxicological concern concept in risk assessment. Toxicol Sci 86(2):226–230
LaKind JS, Sobus JR, Goodman M, Barr DB, Fürst P, Albertini RJ, Weisel CP (2014) A proposal for assessing study quality: biomonitoring, environmental epidemiology, and short-lived chemicals (BEES-C) instrument. Environ Int 73:195–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.07.011
Levy PS, Lemeshow S (2011) Sampling of populations: methods and applications, 4th edn. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470374597
Lutter R, Abbott L, Becker R, Borgert C, Bradley A, Charnley G, Dudley S, Felsot A, Golden N, Gray G, Juberg D, Mitchell M, Rachman N, Rhomberg L, Solomon K, Sundlof S, Willett K (2015) Improving weight of evidence approaches to chemical evaluations. Risk Anal 35:186–192
Margetts BM, Nelson M (1997) Design Concepts in nutritional epidemiology. Oxford University Press, New York. Retrieved from https://books.google.de/books?hl=de&lr=&id=ep3FAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=epidemiologic+study+designs+nutrition&ots=QUbB5zzEe3&sig=DB-sUExilaSKqmgEYeEwaAPtIao#v=onepage&q=epidemiologic study designs nutrition&f=false
Moher D, Shamseer L, Clarke M, Ghersi D, Liberati A, Petticrew M, Stewart LA (2015) Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst Rev 4(1):1. https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-4053-4-1
Morgenstern H (2008) Ecologic studies. In: Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash T (eds) Modern epidemiology, 3rd edn. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp 509–531
Morgenstern H, Thomas D (1993) Principles of study design in environmental epidemiology. Environ Health Perspect 101(Suppl 4):23–38
Nordström Joenssen U, Bossi R, Leffers H, Astrup Jensen A, Skakkebæk NE, Jørgensen N (2009) Do perfluoroalkyl compounds impair human semen quality? Environ Health Perspect 117(6):923–927. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0800517
NRC (1983) Risk assessment in the federal government: managing the process, environment: science and policy for sustainable development. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1080/00139157.1983.9931232
OECD (1981a) Guideline for testing of chemicals. Repeated dose dermal toxicity: 90-day study. TG 411. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/test-no-411-subchronic-dermal-toxicity-90-day-study_9789264070769-en. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
OECD (1981b) Guideline for testing of chemicals. Repeated dose dermal toxicity: 21/28-day study. TG 410. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/book/9789264070745-en. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
OECD (1991–2016) OECD guidelines for the testing of chemicals, section 4: health effects
OECD (1998) Guideline for testing of chemicals. Repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents. TG 408. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/book/9789264070707-en. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
OECD (2001) Guideline for testing of chemicals. Prenatal developmental toxicity study. TG 414. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/book/9789264070820-en. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
OECD (2008) Guideline for testing of chemicals. Repeated dose 28-day oral toxicity study in rodents. 407. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/book/9789264070684-en. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
OECD (2009a) Guideline for testing of chemicals. Carcinogenicity studies. TG 451. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/book/9789264071186-en. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
OECD (2009b) Guideline for testing of chemicals. Combined chronic toxicity\carcinogenicity studies. TG 453. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/book/9789264071223-en. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
OECD (2009c) Guideline for testing of chemicals. Subacute inhalation toxicity: 28-day study. TG 412. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/book/9789264070783-en. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
OECD (2009d) Guideline for testing of chemicals. Subchronic inhalation toxicity: 90-day study. TG 413. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/book/9789264070806-en. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
Papadopoulou E, Padilla-Sanchez JA, Collins CD, Cousins IT, Covaci A, de Wit CA, Leonards PEG, Voorspoels S, Thomsen C, Harrad S, Haug LS (2016) Sampling strategy for estimating human exposure pathways to consumer chemicals. Emerg Contam 2(1):26–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2015.12.002
Parascandola M, Weed DL (2001) Causation in epidemiology. J Epidemiol Community Health 55:905–912. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1731812/pdf/v055p00905.pdf. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
Pieters MN, Kramer HJ, Slob W (1998) Evaluation of the uncertainty factor for subchronic-to-chronic extrapolation: statistical analysis of toxicity data. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 27(2):108–111
Pohl HR, Chou CH, Ruiz P, Holler JS (2010) Chemical risk assessment and uncertainty associated with extrapolation across exposure duration. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 57(1):18–23
Renwick AG (1999a) Subdivision of uncertainty factors to allow for toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics. Hum Ecol Risk Assess Int J 5(5):1035–1050
Renwick AG (1999b) Duration of intake above the ADI/TDI in relation to toxicodynamics and toxicokinetics. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 30(2 Pt 2):S69–S78
Renwick AG, Lazarus NR (1998) Human variability and noncancer risk assessment—an analysis of the default uncertainty factor. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 27:3–20
Rhomberg L (2015) Hypothesis-based weight of evidence: an approach to assessing causation and its application to regulatory toxicology. Risk Anal 35:1114–1124
Roth N, Wilks MF (2014) Neurodevelopmental and neurobehavioural effects of polybrominated and perfluorinated chemicals: a systematic review of the epidemiological literature using a quality assessment scheme. Toxicol Lett 230(2):271–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.02.015
Rothman KJ (2008) Validity in Epidemiologic Studies. In: Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL (eds) Modern epidemiology, 3rd edn. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp 128–147
Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL (2008a) Modern epidemiology, 3rd edn. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA
Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL (2008b) Case-control studies. In: Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL (eds) Modern epidemiology, 3rd edn. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp 111–127
Solecki R, Davies L, Dellarco V, Dewhurst I, van Raaij M, Tritscher A (2005) Guidance on setting of acute reference dose (ARfD) for pesticides. Food Chem Toxicol 43:1569–1593
Sweeney LM, Sommerville DR, Channel SR, Sharits BC, Gargas NM (2014) Impact of non-constant concentration exposure on lethality of inhaled hydrogen cyanide. Toxicol Sci 138(1):205–216
Sweeney LM, Sommerville DR, Channel SR (2015) Evaluating the validity and applicable domain of the toxic load model: impact of concentration vs. time profile on inhalation lethality of hydrogen cyanide. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 71(3):571–584
ten Berge WF, Zwart A, Appelman LM (1986) Concentration-time response relationship of irritant and systemically acting vapours and gases. J Hazard Mater 13:301–309
Tong TYN, Wareham NJ, Khaw K-T, Imamura F, Forouhi NG (2016) Prospective association of the Mediterranean diet with cardiovascular disease incidence and mortality and its population impact in a non-Mediterranean population: the EPIC-Norfolk study. BMC Med 14(1):135. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-016-0677-4
U.S. Department of Homeland Security (2012) START. Understanding risk communication best practices and theory. START releases two risk communication guides for emergency managers and communicators. http://www.start.umd.edu/news/understanding-risk-communication-best-practices-and-theory. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
van den Brandt P, Voorrips L, Hertz-Picciotto I, Shuker D, Boeing H, Speijers G, Guittard C, Kleiner J, Knowles M, Wolk A, Goldbohm A (2002) The contribution of epidemiology. Food Chem Toxicol 40(2):387–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-6915(01)00114-4
van Leeuwen C, Vermeire TE (2007) Risk assessment of chemicals: an introduction. Springer, Dordrecht
Vandenbroucke JP, von Elm E, Altman DG, Gøtzsche PC, Mulrow CD, Pocock SJ, Poole C, Schlesselman JJ, Egger M (2014) Strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE): explanation and elaboration. Int J Surg 2(12):1500–1524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2014.07.014
VWA (2008) Overschrijding van de gezondheidskundige advieswaarde voor chemische stoffen in de voeding van kinderen. Een afwegingskader voor het vaststellen van gezondheidsrisico’s voor kinderen van een half tot twaalf jaar. Oktober 2008. In dutch. http://docplayer.nl/18418089-Kinderen-en-chemische-stoffen-in-de-voeding.html. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
Weihrauch MR, Diehl V (2004) Artificial sweeteners—do they bear a carcinogenic risk? Ann Oncol 15(10):1460–1465. https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdh256
Weiss C (2006) Precaution: the willingness to accept costs to avert uncertain danger. In: Coping with uncertainty. Lecture notes in economics and mathematical systems, vol 581. Springer, Berlin, pp 315–330
WHO (1994) Assessing human health risks of chemicals: derivation of guidance values for health-based exposure limits. International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). Environ Health Criteria 170
WHO (2004) IPCS risk assessment terminology. Part. 1, IPCS/OECD key generic terms used in chemical hazard/risk assessment and Part. 2, IPCS glossary of key exposure assessment terminology. IPCS harmonization project document no. 1. WHO, Geneva. http://www.who.int/ipcs/methods/harmonization/areas/terminology/en/. Accessed 27 Oct 2019
WHO (2005) Chemical-specific adjustment factors for interspecies differences and human variability guidance document for use of data in dose/concentration-response assessment (IPCS harmonisation project document; no. 2). Geneva
WHO (2016) Risk communication in the context of Zika virus. Interim guidance, WHO/ZIKV/RCCE/16.1. 1 Mar 2016. http://www.who.int/emergencies/zika-virus
Witschi H (1999) Notes on the history of Haber’s law. Toxicol Sci 50:164–168
WTO (1994) The WTO agreement on the application of sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS agreement). Available at: https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/sps_e.htm
Zarn JA, Hänggi E, Kuchen A, Schlatter JR (2010) The significance of the subchronic toxicity in the dietary risk assessment of pesticides. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 58(1):72–78
Zarn JA, Engeli B, Schlatter JR (2011) Study parameters influencing NOAEL and LOAEL in toxicity feeding studies for pesticides: exposure duration versus dose decrement, dose spacing, group size and chemical class. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 61(2):243–250
Zota AR, Phillips CA, Mitro SD (2016) Recent fast food consumption and bisphenol A and phthalates exposures among the U.S. population in NHANES, 2003–2010. Environ Health Perspect 124(10):1521–1528. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1510803
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 This is a U.S. government work and not under copyright protection in the U.S.; foreign copyright protection may apply
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Brambilla, G., Greiner, M., Gundert-Remy, U., Heinemeyer, G., Neisel, F., ter Burg, W. (2019). Major Principles and Concepts of Risk Assessment. In: Heinemeyer, G., Jantunen, M., Hakkinen, P. (eds) The Practice of Consumer Exposure Assessment. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96148-4_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96148-4_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-96147-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-96148-4
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)