Abstract
Tonga, long regarded as unique among Pacific island states on account of its constitutional monarchy and social structure, is also distinguishable in its approach to adoption. While informal or customary adoption occurs, the formal system treats those born within wedlock and those who are not, very differently. This has far reaching consequences for children and parents.
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Notes
- 1.
Constitution of Tonga, cl 4.
- 2.
Countries in the world by population 2018. http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/tonga-population/ Accessed 8 May 2018. The 2011 census recorded the population as 103, 252. The 2016 Household Survey indicates a smaller population at 100,651. See, Tonga Statistics Department (2017), p. 10.
- 3.
Government of Tonga (2016).
- 4.
UNICEF (2006), p. 40.
- 5.
UNICEF (2006), p. 41.
- 6.
PRISM (2016).
- 7.
Tonga Broadcasting Commission, ‘Tonga’s pregnancy rate 30 births per 1000 girls’, 25 July 2017. http://www.tonga-broadcasting.net/?p=8462 Accessed 8 May 2018.
- 8.
ABC, ‘Teen marriage in Tonga often caused by parental pressure’, Pacific Beat, 26 August 2016 (Loloa Koloamatangi). www.abc.net.au/news/programs/pacific-beat/2016-08-25/teen-marriage-in-tonga-often-caused-by-parental/7787504. Accessed 31 Jan 2018.
- 9.
See for example, comments by the director of the Tonga Family Health Association in 2002: Radio New Zealand, ‘Call for lower teenager pregnancy rates in Tonga’, Radio New Zealand (online), 17 October 2002. https://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/141321/call-for-lower-teenager-pregnancy-rates-in-tonga. Accessed 31 Jan 2018; United Nations Population Fund (2013); Fatafehi Lilika Mafi, ‘Teen-age pregnancy increases in Tonga’ Tongan Chronical, Pacific Islands Report (online), 16 October 2002. http://www.pireport.org/articles/2002/10/16/teen-age-pregnancy-increases-tonga. Accessed 31 Jan 2018.
- 10.
See more generally UNICEF (2006), pp. 36–70.
- 11.
Besnier (2008), p. 282.
- 12.
Pyke et al. (August 2012), p. 6.
- 13.
Convention on the Rights of the Child, opened for signature 20 November 1989, 1577 UNTS 3 (entered into force 2 September 1990).
- 14.
Constitution of Tonga, cl 27.
- 15.
Maintenance of Illegitimate Children Act Cap 30, s 15(1) (Maintenance of Illegitimate Children Act).
- 16.
Trapski (1991), para. A.6.
- 17.
Maintenance of Illegitimate Children Act, s 16(2).
- 18.
Re M (Adoption) [1994] 2 NZLR 237, cited in Application for Letters of Adoption for J, In re (Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Paulsen CJ, 12 February 2015) available via www.paclii.org at [2015] TOSC 5.
- 19.
Supreme Court Practice Direction 3/1992.
- 20.
Hatch v Solicitor General [2010] Tonga LR 177, [1].
- 21.
Application for Letters of Adoption for Holani, In re (Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Paulsen CJ, 11 March 2015) available via www.paclii.org at [2015] TOSC 10.
- 22.
Re Whyte and Whyte (Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Dalgety J, 18 January 1993) available via www.paclii.org at [1993] TOSC 5.
- 23.
Chief Justice of Tonga Statement dated 08 May 2000 and titled, Re: Adoption Cases. Also cited in Hatch v. Solicitor General [2010] Tonga LR 177.
- 24.
Hatch v. Solicitor General [2010] Tonga LR 177.
- 25.
West (1865), pp. 58, 261.
- 26.
The term ohi is still used today to refer to formal adoption as oppose to legal guardianship.
- 27.
Urbanowicz (1973).
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
Guardianship Act, s 2.
- 30.
Churchward (1959), p. 424.
- 31.
Civil Law Act 1966, s 3.
- 32.
Under ss 2(ii) and 3(ii).
- 33.
(Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Cato J, 4 January 2016) available via www.paclii.org at [2016] TOSC 1.
- 34.
(Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Paulsen CJ, 12 February 2015) available via www.paclii.org at [2015] TOSC 5.
- 35.
Email from an Officer of the Supreme Court of Tonga to Mele Tupou, 5 October 2017.
- 36.
Office of the Supreme Court, Nuku’alofa, Tonga.
- 37.
(Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Paulsen CJ, 12 February 2015) available via www.paclii.org at [2015] TOSC 5.
- 38.
[1994] 2 NZLR 237.
- 39.
Ibid.
- 40.
Re M (Adoption) [1994] 2 NZLR 237 cited in Application for Letters of Adoption for J, In re (Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Paulsen CJ, 12 February 2015) available via www.paclii.org at [2015] TOSC 5.
- 41.
(Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Paulsen CJ, 12 February 2015) available via www.paclii.org at [2015] TOSC 5.
- 42.
(Unreported, Court of Appeal, Tonga, Salmon, Handley and Blanchard JJ, 17 April 2013) available via www.paclii.org at [2013] TOCA 7.
- 43.
(Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Paulsen CJ, 11 March 2015) available via www.paclii.org at [2015] TOSC 10.
- 44.
(Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Scott CJ, 27 October 2011) available via www.paclii.org at [2011] TOSC 6.
- 45.
[1992] NZFLR 422.
- 46.
Re Adoption of A [1992] NZFLR 422, [23].
- 47.
Ibid., [27].
- 48.
(Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Paulsen CJ, 20 February 2017) available via www.paclii.org at [2017] TOSC 5.
- 49.
Ibid., [11].
- 50.
Ibid., [14].
- 51.
See Emberson-Bain (1998).
- 52.
R v. Sione Kalavini Lolohea (Unreported, Supreme Court, Tonga, Cr 58/2016, 13 December 2016).
- 53.
UNICEF Pacific (5 September 2017).
- 54.
See Guidelines for the Alternative Care of Children, GA Res 64/142, UN GAOR, 64th sess, Agenda Item 64, UN Doc A/RES/64/142 (24 February 2010).
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Tupou, M., Farran, S. (2019). Adoption in Tonga. In: Corrin, J., Farran, S. (eds) The Plural Practice of Adoption in Pacific Island States. The World of Small States, vol 5. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95077-8_7
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