Abstract
On entering the country, an individual has 14 days to report to a Refugee Reception Office and apply for asylum. To access a centre, asylum seekers are required to queue. Faced with two separate lines, one for men and one for women—much like the issues surrounding transgender access to public bathrooms—gender refugees approaching the South African state for asylum are immediately forced to make a choice. This queue also creates the conditions for surveillance, particularly as different regions are serviced on different days, which brings together the same asylum seekers from similar regions on the continent. This can make life for those who transition in South Africa doubly exposing, as they possibly move between queues witnessed by local communities. This chapter questions the necessity of an ever-ubiquitous system of sex/gender identification in the lives of asylum seekers, noting current developments internationally, regionally, and locally in relation to the development of third gender categories, ‘X’ category passports, the suppression of gender markers, and wider debates about the removal and necessity of sex/gender identifiers on documents and their impact.
‘Categories and Queues: The Structural Realities of Gender and the South African Asylum System’ was originally published in TSQ, Vol. 4:1, pp. 61–77. Copyright, 2017, Duke University Press. All rights reserved. Republished by permission of the copyright holder, Duke University Press. www.dukeupress.edu.
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Notes
- 1.
Portfolio Committee on Home Affairs, ‘State of Ports of Entry and Refugee Reception Offices’, Portfolio Committee on Home Affairs (2012).
- 2.
Throughout this chapter I use sex/gender to indicate the overlap between the two within the law and the eyes of the state generally.
- 3.
Here, the gaze of the state might be facilitated by border control officers or Home Affairs officials. This is not to say that the state here is considered a monolithic entity, singularly and harmoniously focused but rather that “state actors produce, reconfigure and police particular gender arrangements” in relation to what Paisley Currah, drawing on Nikolas Rose, has called the “securitisation of identity”. Source: Paisley Currah and Tara Mulqueen, ‘Securitizing Gender: Identity, Biometrics, and Transgender Bodies at the Airport’, Social Research 78, no. 2 (2011): 557–82.
- 4.
Tey Meadow, ‘“A Rose Is a Rose”: On Producing Legal Gender Classifications’, Gender & Society 24, no. 6 (December 2010), 818.
- 5.
Vivian K Namaste, Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered People (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 260.
- 6.
Eithne Luibheid, Entry Denied: Controlling Sexuality at the Border (University of Minnesota Press, 2002), 153.
- 7.
The difficulties experienced by South Africa transgender people has been well documented in the media in recent years. See: Lauren Hess, ‘South Africa: Home Affairs Trauma for Pretoria Transgender’, News24, 19 August 2015, http://allafrica.com/stories/201508191542.html; Luiz DeBarros, ‘Home Affairs Drives Transwoman to Hunger Strike’, MambaOnline—Gay South Africa online, 9 October 2014, http://www.mambaonline.com/2014/10/09/home-affairs-drives-trans-woman-hunger-strike/.
- 8.
Darren Rosenblum, ‘“Trapped” in Sing Sing: Transgendered Prisoners Caught in the Gender Binarism’, Michigan Journal of Gender Law 6 (2000), 502.
- 9.
Dean Spade, Normal Life: Administrative Violence, Critical Trans Politics and the Limits of the Law (Brooklyn, NY: South End Press, 2011).
- 10.
Portfolio Committee on Home Affairs, ‘Department of Home Affairs—Refugee Status & Asylum’, home-affairs.gov.za, 2014, http://www.home-affairs.gov.za/index.php/refugee-status-asylum.
- 11.
See Appendix B for an explanation of the South African asylum system, along with rights and duties afforded to refugees and asylum seekers.
- 12.
Akraam.
- 13.
The spelling of this particular term is open to question. Other possible spellings include malayisha or malashiyas. The spelling used here seems to be the most prevalent. See: Taku Dzimwasha, ‘Zimbabweans Migrating to South Africa at Risk of Abuse and Exploitation | Taku Dzimwasha | Global Development | The Guardian’, The Guardian, 13 January 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jan/13/zimbabwe-migration-south-africa-exploitation.
- 14.
Maxine.
- 15.
Bobbie.
- 16.
Siya.
- 17.
John Torpey, The Invention of the Passport, Surveillance, Citizenship and the State (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 1.
- 18.
Torpey, The Invention of the Passport, 1.
- 19.
Human Rights Watch and International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission (IGLHRC), ‘MORE THAN A NAME State-Sponsored Homophobia and Its Consequences in Southern Africa’ (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2003), 80.
- 20.
‘Eshe’. Interview with ‘Eshe’, 2008. ‘Gender Dynamix Collection—GAL108’. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand.
- 21.
Victor Mukasa and Rev. Canon Albert Ogle, ‘Washington National Cathedral: Information about LGBT Rights Abroad: The Spirit of 76’, Washington National Cathedral, 2013, http://www.nationalcathedral.org/events/SF20130407.shtml.
- 22.
Torpey, The Invention of the Passport, 1.
- 23.
Annette Lovemore and Minister of Home Affairs, ‘Internal Question Paper No 41 of 2011’, 25 November 2011, https://pmg.org.za/question_reply/286/.
- 24.
Human Rights Watch, ‘Living on the Margins: Inadequate Protection for Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Johannesburg’ (New York: Human Rights Watch, November 2005), 13.
- 25.
Jay Prosser, Second Skins: The Body Narratives of Transsexuality (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 204.
- 26.
Aren Z Aizura, ‘Of Borders and Homes: The Imaginary Community of (Trans)Sexual Citizenship’, Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 7, no. 2 (2006), 295.
- 27.
Rosemary Marangoly George, The Politics of Home: Postcolonial Relocations and Twentieth-Century Fiction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 18.
- 28.
Daniel.
- 29.
Tatenda in Christopher Dolan, Alexandra Chapman, and Daniel Neumann, Getting Out (Producciones Doble Banda S.L., 2011).
- 30.
Deputy Minister of Home Affairs, ‘State of Refugee Reception Offices: Briefing by Deputy Minister’, Home Affairs (2011), https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/13141/.
- 31.
Kelly.
- 32.
Kelly.
- 33.
Alisa Solomon, ‘Trans/Migrant: Christian Madrazo’s All-American Story’, in Queer Migrations: Sexuality, US Citizenship and Border Crossings, ed. Eithne Luibheid and Lionel Cantu Jr (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 20.
- 34.
Jerome Cornelius and Bobby Jordan, ‘Asylum Seekers Get Cold Shoulder’, Times Live, 8 December 2014, http://www.timeslive.co.za/thetimes/2014/12/08/asylum-seekers-get-cold-shoulder.
- 35.
Busisiwe Ntluli, ‘The Stories of Several LGBTI Africans Persecuted for Being Born LGBTI’, Special Assignment (Cape Town: South African Broadcasting Corporation, 20 October 2011), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WtAa4ClzL14.
- 36.
Roelf Wendell, ‘Refugees Die Waiting for South African Asylum’, ReliefWeb, 21 November 2007, https://reliefweb.int/report/zimbabwe/refugees-die-waiting-south-african-asylum.
- 37.
Wendell, ‘Refugees Die’.
- 38.
South African National Aids Council, ‘Vulnerable Groups: Refugees, Asylum Seekers, and Undocumented Persons: “The Health Situation of Vulnerable Groups in SA”’, Portfolio Committee on Home Affairs (Cape Town: Parliamentary Monitoring Group, 4 March 2008).
- 39.
Liesl Theron, ‘When a Progressive Constitution Is Not Enough, and Other Challenges’, in International Association for the Study of Forced Migration (International Association for the Study of Forced Migration, Kampala, Uganda, 2011), http://genderdynamix.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/When-the-Constitution-is-Not-Enough.pdf.
- 40.
Luibheid, Entry Denied, xxii.
- 41.
Spade, Normal Life.
- 42.
Terry S Kogan, ‘Transsexuals in Public Restrooms: Law, Cultural Geography and Etsitty v Utah Transit Authority’, Temple Political and Civil Rights Law Review 18, no. 2 (2009), 687.
- 43.
David S Cohen, ‘Sex Segregation, Masculinities and Gender-Variant Individuals’, in Masculinities and the Law: A Multidimensional Approach, ed. Frank Rudy Cooper and Anne C McGinley (New York University Press, 2012), 168.
- 44.
Alex.
- 45.
Organization for Refuge, Asylum and Migration (ORAM), No Place for Me: The Struggles of Sexual and Gender Minority Refugees, 2013, https://vimeo.com/58807431.
- 46.
Akraam.
- 47.
Ava.
- 48.
Ava.
- 49.
Stella.
- 50.
Luibheid, Entry Denied.
- 51.
Ava.
- 52.
‘Sasha. Interview with ‘Sasha’, 2008. ‘Gender Dynamix Collection—GAL108’. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand.
- 53.
Liesl Theron and B Camminga, Interview with Liesl Theron—Director Gender DynamiX, 6 November 2012.
- 54.
Theron and Camminga, Interview with Liesl Theron.
- 55.
A now-defunct LGBT media organisation focusing on the African continent.
- 56.
Theron and Camminga.
- 57.
Akraam.
- 58.
Ava.
- 59.
Kelly.
- 60.
The Legal Resources Centre is an independent, client-based, non-profit public interest law clinic, which uses law as an instrument of justice.
- 61.
Ava.
- 62.
Alex.
- 63.
Ntluli, ‘The Stories of Several LGBTI’.
- 64.
Dolan, Getting Out.
- 65.
Ava.
- 66.
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York and London: Verso Books, 2006), 5.
- 67.
Ava.
- 68.
Ava.
- 69.
The mission of the Metropolitan Community Church in South Africa is to spread the love of God in an affirmative and inclusive manner to all people regardless of gender, race, language, culture or sexual orientation.
- 70.
Ava.
- 71.
Ava.
- 72.
Ava.
- 73.
Ava (emphasis added).
- 74.
V Spike Peterson, ‘Political Identities/Nationalism as Heterosexism’, International Feminist Journal of Politics 1, no. 1 (7 December 2010): 34–65.
- 75.
Peterson, ‘Political Identities/Nationalism as Heterosexism’, 54.
- 76.
Mohosinul Karim, ‘Hijras Now a Separate Gender’, Dhaka Tribune, 11 November 2013, http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2013/11/11/hijras-now-a-separate-gender/.
- 77.
Associated Press in New Delhi, ‘India Recognises Transgender People as Third Gender’, The Guardian, 15 May 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/15/india-recognises-transgender-people-third-gender.
- 78.
Radio Free Europe, ‘Pakistan’s “Third Gender” Demand Rights Protection’, Radio Free Europe, 8 June 2010, http://www.rferl.org/content/Pakistans_Third_Gender_Demand_Rights_Protection/2065679.html.
- 79.
Michael Bochenek and Kyle Knight, ‘Establishing the Third Gender Category in Nepal: Process and Prognosis’, Emory International Law Review 26 (2012): 11–41.
- 80.
This is constructed slightly differently within each of the Asian nations, but usually as Transgender, Hijra, ‘Khawaja Sarra’, or ‘Other’.
- 81.
Germany is one of the few countries whose identity cards do not contain information on sex/gender. See: Marjolein van den Brink, Philipp Reus, and Jet Tigchelaar, ‘Out of the Box? Domestic and Private International Law Aspects of Gender Registration’, European Journal of Law Reform 7, no. 2 (2015): 282–93.
- 82.
Jacinta Nandi, ‘Germany Got It Right by Offering a Third Gender Option on Birth Certificates’, The Guardian, 10 November 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/nov/10/germany-third-gender-birth-certificate.
- 83.
Nandi, ‘Germany Got It’.
- 84.
Christina Cauterucci, ‘France Now Recognizes a “Neutral Gender”—but It’s Just As Narrow As the First Two’, Slate, 15 October 2015, http://www.slate.com/blogs/outward/2015/10/15/france_s_new_third_gender_is_just_as_narrow_as_the_first_two.html.
- 85.
Cauterucci, ‘France Now’.
- 86.
Ava.
- 87.
Morgan Carpenter, ‘German Proposals for a “Third Gender” on Birth Certificates Miss the Mark’, Organisation Intersex International Australia Limited, 20 August 2013, https://oii.org.au/23183/germany-third-gender-birth-certificates/.
- 88.
The New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs, ‘Transgender Applicants—New Zealand Passports’, passports.govt.nz , n.d., https://www.passports.govt.nz/Transgender-applicants.
- 89.
The sex and gender diversity project, ‘Sex Files: The Legal Recognition of Sex in Documents and Government Records’ (Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 2009), https://www.humanrights.gov.au/our-work/sexual-orientation-sex-gender-identity/publications/sex-files-legal-recognition-sex.
- 90.
Admin, ‘Intersex and the Sex Files: Good for Trans*, Bad for Intersex’, Intersex Human Rights Australia, 15 May 2011, https://ihra.org.au/13524/sex-files-good-trans-not-good-intersex/.
- 91.
Admin, ‘Intersex and the Sex Files’.
- 92.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ‘Part 4: Specifications for Machine Readable Passports (MRPs) and Other TD3 Size MRTDs’, in Doc 9303 Machine Readable Travel Documents Seventh Edition (ICAO, 2015), 1–38, https://www.icao.int/publications/Documents/9303_p4_cons_en.pdf, 14.
- 93.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ‘Part 4’.
- 94.
Egale Canada, ‘Policy Paper: “Sex” Inscriptions on the Canadian Passport’ (Toronto, 2011), https://egale.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/extra_1558.pdf, 6.
- 95.
New Zealand (Presented by), ‘A Review of the Requirement to Display the Holder’s Gender on Travel Documents’, International Civil Aviation Organization Information Paper (Montreal, 10 December 2012), https://www.icao.int/Meetings/TAG-MRTD/Documents/Tag-Mrtd-21/Tag-Mrtd21_IP04.pdf, 2.
- 96.
New Zealand (Presented by), ‘A Review’, 3.
- 97.
Feministisch Netwerk GroenLinks, ‘* Verplicht Veld? Pleidooi Voor Verkennen van Mogelijkheden Voor Afschaffen van Geslacht Als Juridisch Onderscheid’ (Netherlands, 2011), https://femnet.groenlinks.nl/sites/, 4.
- 98.
Feministisch Netwerk GroenLinks, ‘* Verplicht’, 10.
- 99.
Marjolein van den Brink, ‘Onpraktisc, Oninteressat En Ongepast’, in Vrouw & Recht: De Beweging, de Mensen, de Issues, ed. Margeet de Boer and Marjan Wijers (Amsterdam: Pallas Publications, 2009), 167.
- 100.
van den Brink, ‘Onpraktisc’, 168.
- 101.
HIVOS, ‘HUMAN RIGHTS VICTORY: Ugandan Transgender, Lesbian and Gay Human Rights Upheld In the High Court of Uganda’, hivos.net , 23 December 2008, http://www.hivos.nl/dut/content/download/7637/50427/file/Press%20Release%20Uganda%20Human%20Rights%20Court%20Case.pdf.
- 102.
The United Nations Commission Against Torture recently released findings regarding the Convention Against Torture, explicitly recommending “the repeal of “abusive” preconditions to legal gender recognition, and calling for respect for transgender people’s “autonomy and physical and psychological integrity”. These arguably could be extended to wider legal litigation, with regard to legal gender recognition in relation to necessary documentation. Geoffrey Yeung, ‘Using the Convention Against Torture to Advance Transgender and Intersex Rights’, ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk , 26 May 2016, http://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/using-the-convention-against-torture-to-advance-transgender-and-intersex-rights/.
- 103.
Shamiso F V Chigorimbo, ‘Africa: International—Where Are Diverse Gender Identities in the Sixteen Day Campaign?’, allafrica.com , 27 November 2015, http://allafrica.com/stories/201511271282.html.
- 104.
Lydia Matata, ‘Identifying as Neither Male Nor Female, Some Kenyans Seek a Third Option on Official Documents’, globalpressjournal.com , 2 December 2015, http://globalpressjournal.com/africa/kenya/identifying-neither-male-nor-female-some-kenyans-seek-third-option-official-documents.
- 105.
Anne Fausto-Sterling, ‘The Five Sexes, Revisited’, The Sciences, no. July/August (2000): 23.
- 106.
Pumla Rulashe, ‘Refugees Lobby for Identity in South Africa’, UNHCR.org , 1 May 2004, http://www.unhcr.org/406c1c3c4.html.
- 107.
Gender DynamiX (GDX), ‘Gender Dynamix on Alteration of Sex Description & Sex Status Act Implementation; Lawyers for Human Rights on Statelessness; CoRMSA on Closure of Refugee Reception Offices in Metro Areas’, § Portfolio Committee on Home Affairs (2012), https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/15305/.
- 108.
M Florencia Belvedere, ‘Insiders but Outsiders: The Struggle for the Inclusion of Asylum Seekers and Refugees in South Africa’, Refuge 24, no. 1 (2007), 63.
- 109.
The Smart Cards were meant to phase out the maroon refugee identification documents as early as 2005, although this has yet to take place. See: Human Rights Watch, ‘Living on the Margins: Inadequate Protection for Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Johannesburg’ (New York: Human Rights Watch, November 2005), 35.
- 110.
Fanfare July, 52nd ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1991). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’—GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
- 111.
See for instance: Roni Amit, Queue Here for Corruption Measuring Irregularities in South Africa’s Asylum System (Johannesburg: Lawyers for Human Rights African Centre for Migration and Society, 2015).
- 112.
Currah and Mulqueen, ‘Securitizing Gender’, 557.
- 113.
Malta’s recent Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics Act, which, unlike in South Africa, applies to refugees and asylum seekers, allows parents and guardians to “postpone the inclusion of a gender marker on the birth certificate until the child’s gender identity is determined”—Transgender Europe (TGEU), ‘Malta Adopts Ground-Breaking Trans and Intersex Law’, tgeu.org , 1 April 2015, https://tgeu.org/malta-adopts-ground-breaking-trans-intersex-law/.
- 114.
Emily Schmall, ‘Transgender Advocates Hail Law Easing Rules in Argentina’, The New York Times, 24 May 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/25/world/americas/transgender-advocates-hail-argentina-law.html.
- 115.
Legal Resources Center and Gender DynamiX (GDX), Briefing Paper: Alteration of Sex Description and Sex Status Act, No 49 of 2003 (Cape Town, 2015), https://genderdynamix.org.za/wp-content/uploads/LRC-act49-2015-web.pdf.
- 116.
Peterson, 39.
- 117.
Luibheid, 53.
- 118.
Rosenblum, “Trapped”, 6.
- 119.
Namaste, Invisible Lives, 137.
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Camminga, B. (2019). Of Categories and Queues and Structural Realities. In: Transgender Refugees and the Imagined South Africa. Global Queer Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92669-8_5
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