Abstract
The policing of gendered and sexual behaviours, along with race, functioned as a central tool in an arsenal of prescriptive measures deployed by the South African apartheid state to ensure the exclusion of ‘deviance’. However, gender and the production of gender subjectivities has received remarkably little attention. This chapter addresses this lacuna plotting, beginning with the earliest instances of the legislative curtailing of gender-transgressive behaviour through the Disguises Acts (1906–1969). By plotting the historical commingling of eugenics and sexology, the interweaving relationship between the law and medical knowledge it is the argument of this chapter that the apartheid state did not simply police acceptable gender but defined normality and abnormality within public sphere. This includes what, at first glance, may seem quite strange—the materialisation of transsexuality during apartheid as a state-sanctioned medical and legal entity. This chapter follows the varied and shifting understandings, diagnoses, and assemblages of the gendered body in South Africa, in particular how it has been constructed—deviant, inverted, homosexual, and transsexual—by whom, and to what end, including its construction by groups such as the Phoenix Society, quite possibly the first organisation in South Africa to focus on gender-transgressive identities.
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Notes
- 1.
Susan Stryker, Transgender History (Berkley: Seal Press, 2008).
- 2.
Susan Stryker, ‘Transgender Studies 2.0 New Directions in the Field’, 9 December 2011, http://koensforskning.ku.dk/trans/stryker.pdf.
- 3.
Stryker, 2011.
- 4.
See: Joanne Meyerowitz, How Sex Changed A History of Transsexuality in the United States (Harvard University Press, 2004).
- 5.
Here I am referring to a collection of Acts in South Africa prohibiting disguise. Namely: Transvaal Law On Masks, False Beards or Other Disguises, no. 2 of 1891; Criminal Law Amendment Act of Natal, Act no. 10 of 1910 S6(2)E; Cape Colony Police Offences Act, no. 27 of 1882 SVIII(2); Orange River Colony Police Offences Ordinance, no. 21 of 1902 S25(2).
- 6.
Amanda Lock Swarr, Sex in Transition: Remaking Gender and Race in South Africa (New York: SUNY Press, 2012), 43.
- 7.
Saul Dubow, ‘South Africa: Paradoxes in the Place of Race’, in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics , ed. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 274–288.
- 8.
Martin Chanock, The Making of South African Legal Culture 1902–1936: Fear, Favour and Prejudice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 76.
- 9.
The Journal of the Medical Association of South Africa (later the South African Medical Journal) was first published in 1884. It is the official journal of the Medical Association of South Africa (MASA), a state-recognised body representing South African medical professionals.
- 10.
Dubow, ‘South Africa’, 277.
- 11.
From this trip Galton produced one of his seminal works: Francis Galton, Narrative of An Explorer in Tropical South Africa (New York, London and Melbourne: Ward, Locke & Co, 1891).
- 12.
Saul Dubow, ‘South Africa: Paradoxes in the Place of Race’, in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, eds. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 276.
- 13.
Dubow, 276.
- 14.
Geeny Beemyn, ‘A Presence in the Past: Transgender Historiography’, Journal of Women’s History 25, no. 4 (2013), 113.
- 15.
Meyerowitz, How Sex Changed, 26.
- 16.
A diagnosis that referred to the assumed inborn reversal of gender traits and sexual interest in the same sex.
- 17.
Jay Prosser, Second Skins: The Body Narratives of Transsexuality (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
- 18.
Vernon A Rosario and Joanne Meyerowitz, ‘Transforming Sex: An Interview with Joanne Meyerowitz, Ph.D. Author of How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States’, Studies in Gender and Sexuality 5, no. 4 (2011), 474.
- 19.
Alexander Mina Stern, ‘Gender and Sexuality: A Global Tour and Compass’, in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics , ed. Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 174.
- 20.
Siobhan B Somerville, Queering the Color Line: Race and the Invention of Homosexuality in American Culture (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2000), 31.
- 21.
George Chauncey, ‘From Sexual Inversion To Homosexuality: Medicine and the Changing Conceptualization of Female Deviance’, Salmagundi 58/59, no. Fall 1982–Winter 1983 (1983), 124.
- 22.
“Being, broadly speaking, a disorder of the unknown boundary-land between mind and body, observation on it must be made from two sides, from the psychical and from the somatic side”. Source: C J Westerfield, ‘Some Thoughts on Neurasthenia’, South African Medical Record VII (10 June 1909), 150.
- 23.
Westerfield, ‘Some Thoughts’, 153.
- 24.
F O Stohr, ‘Homosexuality’, Journal of the Medical Association of South Africa II (8 September 1928), 457.
- 25.
Somerville, Queering the Color Line, 32.
- 26.
Phyllis Gosskurth, Havelock Ellis: A Biography (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Ltd, 1980), 410.
- 27.
Somerville, 31.
- 28.
Dubow, 274–288.
- 29.
Stryker, Transgender History, 31.
- 30.
The most crucial of these was the Criminal Law Amendment Act of Natal, Act no. 10 of 1910 which stated that the following would be understood as a crime:
(e) (In the case of a male person) being found dressed as a woman in circumstances indicating a probable intention of availing himself of such a disguise to commit a crime, whether such crime be known or not.
Critically, unlike the other Acts in existence, this was the only one that placed the onus on the accused to prove their innocence. Source: Criminal Law Amendment Act of Natal, Act no. 10 of 1910 S6(2)E
- 31.
R v Lesson 1906 20 EDL 183.
- 32.
Shannon Hoctor, ‘The Offence of Being Found in Disguise in Suspicious Circumstances’, Obiter 34, no. 2 (2013), 316.
- 33.
Kendal Franks, ‘The Position of the Medical Profession in South Africa’, South African Medical Record, 25 December 1909, 306.
- 34.
Franks, ‘The Position’, 306–318.
- 35.
Franks, 318.
- 36.
Clare Sears, Arresting Dress: Cross-Dressing, Law, and Fascination in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2015), 10.
- 37.
Indeed, as will be addressed more fully in this chapter, along similar lines as the future Disguises Act, the Immigration Act would come to have a long history as a tool of exclusion that would eventually require dismantling in order to create a refugee regime in the country.
- 38.
Marc Epprecht, Hungochani: The History of a Dissident Sexuality in Southern Africa (Montreal: McGill Queens University Press, 2004).
- 39.
Clare Sears, ‘Electric Brilliancy: Cross-Dressing Law and Freak Show Displays in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco’, Women’s Studies Quarterly 36, no. 3/4 Fall–Winter (2008), 173.
- 40.
E Cluver, ‘The Medical Practitioner’s Place in Local Government and Health Administration in South Africa’, Journal of the Medical Association of South Africa II, no. 8 August (1928), 434.
- 41.
Cluver, ‘The Medical’, 434–440.
- 42.
Stohr, ‘Homosexuality’, 455–460.
- 43.
Stohr, 455.
- 44.
It is the eventual splitting of inversion into homosexual and transsexual (“the former representing deviances of sexual orientation/object choice and the latter representing deviances of gender identity and bodily sex”) that led to the “unhinging of sexuality and gender”. – Henry S Rubin, ‘Phenomenology as Method in Trans Studies’, GLQ A Journal of Gay and Lesbian Studies 4, no. 2 (1998), 267.
- 45.
Unsurprisingly, Ellis, in his book The Task of Social Hygiene, held similar sentiments regarding race regeneration, hygiene, and purity as those published in Our White Population. Moreover, in 1907 Ellis noted in correspondence with Galton that part of the project Studies in the Psychology of Sex, quite apart from its sexological focus, would be to “insinuate the eugenic attitude”. Source: Henry Havelock Ellis, The Task of Social Hygiene, 1919, http://www.gutenberg.org/files/9887/9887.txt; Gosskurth, Havelock Ellis, 410.
- 46.
‘Reviews: Studies in Sex-Psychology – Havelock Ellis’, Journal of the Medical Association of South Africa II January–December, no. 25 August (1928), 452.
- 47.
“Another kind of inversion which usually remains, so far as the sexual impulse itself is concerned, heterosexual, that is to say, normal. Inversion of this kind leads a person to feel like a person of the opposite sex, and to adopt, so far as possible, the tastes, habits, and dress of the opposite sex.” – Henry Havelock Ellis, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume II Sexual Inversion (Philadelphia: F.A. Davis, 1928), http://www.gutenberg.org/files/13611/13611-h/13611-h.htm.
- 48.
‘Reviews: Studies in Sex-Psychology – Havelock Ellis’, Journal of the Medical Association of South Africa II January–December (25 August 1928): 452.
- 49.
Stohr, 459.
- 50.
Hoctor, ‘The Offence’, 316–321.
- 51.
In a 2004 newspaper article the police commissioner of Point Police Station, Durban claimed:
At one time in the 1960s Durban had the largest transvestite population in the country. A whole suburb of Cato Manor settlement was made up of transvestites. Paul Kirk, ‘Boy or Girl? Transvestites Pose Tricky Problem’, The Saturday Paper, 3 May 1997
- 52.
Rex v Ntokile Zulu 1947 (1) SA 241 (N) 1947 (1) SA, p. 241.
- 53.
Ibid.
- 54.
Rex v Ntokile Zulu 1947 (1) SA 241 (N) 1947 (1) SA, p. 241.
- 55.
Clare Sears, Arresting Dress: Cross-Dressing, Law, and Fascination in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2015), 4.
- 56.
Stern, ‘Gender and Sexuality’, 187.
- 57.
Dubow, 283.
- 58.
Dubow, 283.
- 59.
Dubow, 283.
- 60.
Dubow, 283.
- 61.
A 1952 review of the Journal of Sexology—which included subjects such as neurotic counterfeit sex and the influence of heterosexual culture on the attitudes of homosexuals—noted that “this is a Journal worthy of active support”. ‘Review of Books – Sexology’, South African Medical Journal XXVI (10 May 1952), 404.
- 62.
‘The International Journal of Sexology’, South African Medical Journal XXIII (10 September 1949), 760.
- 63.
‘International Congress of Medical Sexology’, South African Medical Journal XLVIII (29 June 1974), 1355.
- 64.
‘International Congress of Sexology’, South African Medical Journal XLIX (4 October 1975): 1766.
- 65.
‘Notices-Human Sexuality Seminar’. South African Medical Journal 63 (5 March 1983), 384.
- 66.
‘University of the Witwatersrand Medical Students’ Council: Annual Conference’, South African Medical Journal XLIX (30 August 1975), 1537.
- 67.
M.A. Gillman, ‘Correspondance – Nominations for the Who’s Who of Sexology’, South African Medical Journal 65 (26 May 1984), 834.
- 68.
Harry Benjamin, ‘Transsexualism and Transvestism as Psycho-Somatic and Somato-Psycho Syndromes’, in The Transgender Studies Reader, ed. Susan Stryker and Stephen Whittle (New York: Routledge, 2006), 45.
- 69.
Meyerowitz, How Sex Changed, 49.
- 70.
Meyerowitz, How Sex Changed, 49.
- 71.
‘What Endocrinology Is Not: The No-Man’s Land of Medicine’, South African Medical Journal 30, no. 21 (1956), 487–489.
- 72.
Fanfare May, 40th ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1989). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 10.
- 73.
Editor, ‘Reviews of Books’, South African Medical Journal XXVI (3 January 1953), 24.
- 74.
Ronald Singer, ‘Possibilities of Sex Reversal’, South African Medical Journal 28, no. 16 (17 April 1954), 329–330.
- 75.
Singer, ‘Possibilities of Sex Reversal’, 329.
- 76.
Louise F Freed, ‘Medico-Sociological Data in the Therapy of Homosexuality’, South African Medical Journal XXVIII (27 November 1954), 1022.
- 77.
‘What Endocrinology Is Not’, 487–489.
- 78.
Recognised for being a pioneer of Afrikaans and for his wielding of the pen “in the cause of Medicine and for the advancement of the Medical Association of South Africa”. Source: M R Drennan, ‘The Role of Sex in Human Evolution’, South African Medical Journal XXXII (6 December 1958), 1176.
- 79.
Drennan, ‘The Role of Sex in Human Evolution’, 1178.
- 80.
In 1965, Drum actually covered the story of three friends arrested for masquerading as women—John ‘Joan’ Kruger, Edward ‘Edna’ Hobles and Mohamed ‘Sonia’ Kola, better known as S v Kola. Two of their friends—“Murial and Sharon”—took what Chetty describes as “extreme measures to avoid persecution”: both had ‘sex change’ operations. Source: Dhianaraj R Chetty, ‘A Drag at Madame Costello’s: Cape Moffie Life and the Popular Press in the 1950s and 1960s’, in Defiant Desire: Gay and Lesbian Lives in South Africa, ed. Mark Gevisser and Edwin Cameron (Braamfontein: Ravan Press, 1994), 122.
- 81.
Editor, ‘Our White Population’, Journal of the Medical Association of South Africa 11, no. 10 (26 May 1928): 257–258; Alexander M Don, ‘Transvestism and Transsexualism’, South African Medical Journal XXXVII, (4 May 1963): 479–485.
- 82.
The Golden City Post published a story in 1955 about an assigned female person living as a man. Although Chetty represents this person as a cross-dressing lesbian gangster, in the words of ‘Johnny’ Williams, the gangster in question, “I was not playing the fool when I disguised myself as a man. I did it because I hate to be a woman”. Later in the article Johnny declares outright, “I am a man myself”.—Dhianaraj R Chetty, ‘Lesbian Gangster: The Gertie Williams Story’, in Defiant Desire: Gay and Lesbian Lives in South Africa, ed. Mark Gevisser and Edwin Cameron (Braamfontein: Ravan Press, 1994), 130.
- 83.
Chetty, ‘A Drag at Madame Costello’s’, 116.
- 84.
A slang term common in South Africa, sometimes used in a derogative manner to describe a male homosexual.
- 85.
Chetty, ‘A Drag at Madame Costello’s’, 119.
- 86.
Chetty, ‘A Drag at Madame Costello’s’, 119.
- 87.
Joanne Meyerowitz, ‘Sex Change and the Popular Press: Historical Notes on Transsexuality in the United States, 1930–1955’, GLQ A Journal of Gay and Lesbian Studies 4, no. 2 (1998): 159–187.
- 88.
Harry Benjamin, The Transsexual Phenomenon (New York: The Julian Press, 1966).
- 89.
Stephen Whittle, ‘A Brief History of Transgender Issues’, The Guardian, 2 June 2010, http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/jun/02/brief-history-transgender-issues.
- 90.
Don, ‘Transvestism and Transsexualism’, 479–485.
- 91.
Don, 479.
- 92.
Don, 482.
- 93.
Don, 485.
- 94.
Don, 485.
- 95.
Don, 484.
- 96.
Lock Swarr, Sex in Transition, 59.
- 97.
S v Kola 1966 (4) SA 322 (A) 1966 (4) SA, p. 322.
- 98.
“Whereas it has appeared that by the use of masks, false beards and disguises, fraud has more than once been committed, the public being thereby lead to believe that it has to deal with another person than is actually the case … be it hereby enacted and provided as follows:
1. The wearing or use of masks, false beards or other means whereby disguises are effected, in public roads or other public places is forbidden.” Source: Transvaal Law On Masks, False Beards or Other Disguises, Law no. 2 of 1891 S1.
- 99.
S v Kola 1966 (4) SA 322 (A) 1966 (4) SA, p. 322.
- 100.
Rex v Ntokile Zulu 1947 (1) SA 241 (N) 1947 (1).
- 101.
S v Kola 1966 (4) SA 322 (A) 1966 (4) SA, p. 322.
- 102.
Dr Derk Crichton notes that between 1969 and 1993 he performed 58 “gender reassignment surgeries” in Durban. Source: Derk Crichton, ‘Gender Reassignment Surgery for Male Primary Transsexuals’, South African Medical Journal 83 (1 May 1993), 347.
- 103.
Epprecht, Hungochani, 147.
- 104.
S A Strauss, ‘The Sex-Change Operation: Two Interesting Decisions’, South African Law Journal 84 (1967), 218.
- 105.
Bruno recalls hearing his name on the radio, seeing it in the Daily Mail and Die Beeld. Michele Bruno, Interview with Michele Bruno, 3 September 1997, Oral History Project Collection – AM2709, Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
- 106.
Mark Gevisser, ‘A Different Fight for Freedom: A History of South African Lesbian and Gay Organisation from the 1950s to the 1990s’, in Defiant Desire: Gay and Lesbian Lives in South Africa, ed. Mark Gevisser and Edwin Cameron (Braamfontein: Ravan Press, 1994), 31.
- 107.
The Immorality Act, no. 23 of 1957.
- 108.
Neville Hoad, Graeme Reid, and Karen Martin, eds., Sex and Politics in South Africa (Johannesburg: Double Storey Publishers, 2010).
- 109.
Gevisser, ‘A Different Fight’, 30.
- 110.
The Immorality Amendment Act, no. 57 of 1969.
- 111.
The Prohibition of Disguises Act, no. 16 of 1969.
- 112.
Lock Swarr, 53.
- 113.
Robert Rand Jespersen, ‘The Jurisprudential Problem of Apartheid’, Texas S.U.L. Review 4 (1976), 323.
- 114.
The Prohibition of Disguises Act, no. 16 of 1969.
- 115.
Hoctor, 316–321.
- 116.
Hoctor argues that this instance of ‘reverse onus’ has consistently been struck down by the Constitutional Court as it infringes on the right to be presumed innocent. Hoctor, 316–321.
- 117.
During apartheid the state divided the South African populace into particular racial categories. These were Black, White, Coloured and Indian. Coloured generally referred to all those people of mixed race, Khoisan or Cape Malay descent.
- 118.
Richard Ekins and Dave King, Transgender Phenomenon (London: Sage, 2006).
- 119.
Alice L100, ‘A History of the Beaumont Society’, Beaumont Magazine, 1 December 2005.
- 120.
The Beaumont Society, ‘History’, Beaumont (blog), accessed 29 March 2018, http://www.beaumontsociety.org.uk/history/.
- 121.
L100, ‘A History of the Beaumont Society’, 3.
- 122.
Fanfare June Winter Edition, 66th ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1995). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 4.
- 123.
Fanfare June Winter Edition, 5.
- 124.
Gevisser, 14–89.
- 125.
Geeny, ‘A Presence in the Past: Transgender Historiography’, 113–121.
- 126.
Ekins and King, Transgender Phenomenon.
- 127.
Leslie Feinberg, Transgender Warrior (Boston: Beacon Press, 1997), X.
- 128.
Dave King and Richard Ekins, ‘The First UK Transgender Conferences, 1974 and 1975’. Gendys Journal Autumn, no. 39 (2007), http://www.gender.org.uk/gendys/2007/39ekins.htm#footnote.
- 129.
Dave King and Richard Ekins, ‘The First UK Transgender Conferences, 1974 and 1975’, Gendys Journal Autumn, no. 39 (2007), http://www.gender.org.uk/gendys/2007/39ekins.htm#footnote.
- 130.
An article printed in The Star newspaper in 1980 claimed that in “1969 and 1975 at Groote Schuur Hospital alone, out of a total of 62 referred cases, 32 had sex change surgery”. Bob Kennaugh, ‘Plight of In-between People’, The Star, 5 March 1980.
- 131.
Don Wilson et al., ‘Transgender Issues in South Africa, with Particular Reference to the Groote Schuur Hospital Transgender Unit’ 104, no. 6 (14 June 2013), 450.
- 132.
Editor, ‘Passing Events: In Die Verbygaan’, South African Medical Journal LI (9 April 1977), 517–518.
- 133.
Aubrey Theron, ‘Criteria for the Evaluation of Male-to-Female Transsexual Patients’, South African Family Practice Journal 1, no. 10 (1 October 1980): 4–7.
- 134.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, no. 51 of 1974.
- 135.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Bill Second Reading, Debates of the House of Assembly (3 October 1974), 4443.
- 136.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Bill Second Reading, 4444.
- 137.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Bill Second Reading, 4444.
- 138.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Bill Second Reading, 4441.
- 139.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Bill Second Reading.
- 140.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Bill Second Reading, 4442.
- 141.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Bill Second Reading, 4442.
- 142.
Jerold Taitz, ‘A Transsexuals Nightmare: The Determination of Sexual Identity in English Law’, International Journal of Law and the Family 2 (1988), 144.
- 143.
Taitz, ‘A Transsexuals Nightmare’, 145.
- 144.
Sexual Offences Act 1967 (UK) c 60.
- 145.
Morris mentions several key moments in her transition which took place in Africa. She also reminisces about her time in South Africa prior to transitioning and during her transition. She notes calling on a friend in the Cape during her transition: “a Xhosa wise woman, telling my future in her dark hut of the Transkei, had assured me long before one day I would be a woman too”—Jan Morris, Conundrum (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974), 105 & 110–111.
- 146.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Bill Second Reading, 4442.
- 147.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Bill Second Reading, 4448.
- 148.
The change in legal status was brought on by a case in which an individual, who had been assigned male at birth, had undergone sex reassignment, changed their marker in the Birth Register to female, and later entered into an ostensibly heterosexual marriage with a female. The wife filed for divorce in the Witwatersrand Local Division on the grounds of adultery. In the process, the actual validity of her marriage came into question and the court chose to apply the highly controversial Ormond Test from the English case of Corbett v Corbett (1970). The court held that the plaintiff was male, noting, “Imitation cannot be equated with actual transformation” and that by extension the marriage was void. W v W 1976 (2) SA 308 (W)1976 (2) SA, p. 308.
- 149.
In 1970, the case of Corbett v Corbett became the precedent for the determination of legally recognised sex, applying what would later become known as the Ormond Test. In the case, nine doctors gave evidence suggesting four factors that were considered integral to delineating sex: chromosomes, genitals, gonads, and psychology. The case dealt with the validity of a marriage between Arthur Corbett, a cis-gendered male, and April Ashley a ‘post-operative male-to-female transsexual woman’. Justice Ormond defined marriage as the union of a man and a woman and the cornerstone of the family, “in which the capacity for natural heterosexual intercourse is an essential element”. Ormond distinguished sex from gender: he posed gender as cultural, while sex was biological, determined at birth and unchangeable. Corbett v Corbett (otherwise Ashley) 1970 2 All ER 33.
- 150.
W v W 1976 (2) SA 308 (W)1976 (2) SA, p. 308.
- 151.
Lock Swarr.
- 152.
Robert Kaplan, ‘Aversion Project – Psychiatric Abuses in the South African Defence Force During the Apartheid Era’, South African Medical Journal 91, no. 3 (2001): 216–217.
- 153.
Ibid., 217.
- 154.
Here follows a description of being diagnosed in the military by one transsexual:
She found herself in an intense overt masculine world and was lost. She was at that time severely depressed and attempted to commit suicide. She was admitted to a military hospital. Whilst she was in the military hospital, the diagnosis of male to female transsexualism was made for the first time. For the first time she had a name for her bizarre condition and a realization that there was a recognizable journey traversed by other transsexuals culminating in a surgical procedure and finally living out her days as a normal woman. Source: Ehlers v Bohler Uddeholm Africa (Pty) Ltd (2010) 31 ILJ 2383 (LC) S 3
- 155.
Robert Kaplan, ‘Aversion Project – Psychiatric Abuses in the South African Defence Force During the Apartheid Era’, South African Medical Journal 91, no. 3 (1 March 2001): 217.
- 156.
Carla Tsampiras, ‘Not So “Gay” After All – Constructing (Homo)Sexuality in AIDS Research in the South African Medical Journal, 1980–1990’, South African Historical Journal 60, no. 3 (2008): 482.
- 157.
Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Bill Second Reading, 4446.
- 158.
According to Liesl Theron in an interview with Thamar Klein, documents including a new ID book and passport indicating the post-operative sex marker were made available almost immediately after leaving hospital. Source: Thamar Klein, ‘Intersex and Transgender Activism in South Africa’, Liminalis 3 (2009): 29.
- 159.
Lock Swarr, 60.
- 160.
Lock Swarr, 60.
- 161.
Homosexuality was declassified as mental disorder in 1973. See: R L Spitzer, ‘The Diagnostic Status of Homosexuality in DSM-III: A Reformulation of the Issues’, American Journal of Psychiatry 138, no. 2 (1981): 210–215.
- 162.
Elaine Wilson, ‘The Twilight World of the Transsexual’, The Daily News, 22 June 1985.
- 163.
Wilson, ‘The Twilight World of the Transsexual’.
- 164.
The issue of ‘sex change’ continued to be a difficult point for the NG Kerk throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s: an article published in Die Volksblad in 1990 noted that the NG Kerk considered the operation taboo. The church also noted concern over what they perceived to be the rising number of operations taking place. Another article regarding the church’s feelings was published again at the end of 1990. Source: ‘Geslagsoperasies Taboe, Se Kerk’, Die Volksblad, 12 April 1990; ‘Vir Die Nood Draai Die Sinode Dowe Oor’, Die Volksblad, 24 October 1990.
- 165.
Karin Brynard, ‘Seksoperasie Afgekeur’, Die Vaderland, 13 September 1983.
- 166.
Karin Brynard, ‘Seksoperasie Afgekeur’, Die Vaderland, 13 September 1983.
- 167.
‘Sulke Huwelike Onnatuurlik’, Die Volksblad, 3 February 1984.
- 168.
‘Sulke Troues Onnatuurlik’, Die Vaderland, 6 February 1984.
- 169.
‘Problems of Same Sex Marriages’, 11 May 1984.
- 170.
‘Al Meer Geslagsveranderinge’, Die Transvaler, 20 August 1984.
- 171.
‘Al Meer Geslagsveranderinge’.
- 172.
Ekins and King, ‘Rethinking “Who Put the ‘Trans’ in Transgender?”.
- 173.
Charl Marias, ‘Charl’s Story: “Back in the 70s There Was No Support”’, in Trans: Transgender Life Stories from South Africa, ed. Ruth Morgan and Joy Wellbeloved (Jacana Media, 2009), 27–34.
- 174.
“During the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s Scope magazine became a South African publishing icon. It challenged the censorship laws of the time with pin-up pictures of bikini-clad girls and star-covered breasts”. Source: Johannes Froneman, ‘The Rise and Demise of Scope Magazine: A Media-Historical Perspective’, Ecquid Novi African Journalism Studies 32, no. 1 (2011): 49–65.
- 175.
Marlene, ‘Marlene’s Story: “I Felt Lonely Trying to Be a Man”’, in Trans: Transgender Life Stories from South Africa, ed. Ruth Morgan, Charl Marias, and Joy Wellbeloved (Jacana Media, 2009), 58.
- 176.
Marlene, ‘I Felt Lonely’.
- 177.
Marlene, ‘I Felt Lonely’.
- 178.
Fanfare November, 19th ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1985). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 26.
- 179.
Fanfare September, 18th ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1985). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 1.
- 180.
Fanfare November, 19th ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1985). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 7.
- 181.
Fanfare March, 33rd ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1988). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 26.
- 182.
Fanfare March, 33rd ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1988), 26.
- 183.
“Are you telling me this is what you looked like before you became a transgenderist?” The cartoon isn’t directly attributed to any other organisation; however, given the lack of the term ‘transgender’s’ visibility within Phoenix at the time and the fact that they did reprint cartoons and articles from organisations who were using the term, it is highly likely this particular cartoon was sourced from another organisation.
- 184.
Fanfare September, 24th ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1986). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 18.
- 185.
Marlene, “I Felt Lonely Trying to Be a Man”, 57.
- 186.
At the time Benjamin’s The Transsexual Phenomenon appeared on the state’s list of objectionable literature from 1980s. Cape Town Archives Repository. Objectionable Literature. Harry Benjamin. The Transsexual Phenom. Vol. 3/83.
- 187.
Fanfare May, 22nd ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1986). Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 20.
- 188.
The Library of the Phoenix distributed copies of April Ashley’s Odyssey, Morris’s Conundrum and The Christine Jorgenson Story. Fanfare September. 1986. Vol. 24. The Phoenix Society. Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 20.
- 189.
“It gives me great pleasure to say that even overseas our sister organisations appreciate your efforts so much that one can hardly open an overseas magazine and not find one or more of FanFare’s articles reprinted.” Source: Fanfare September, 24th ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1986). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 10.
- 190.
Fanfare September, 36th ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1988). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 14.
- 191.
Fanfare September, 36th ed., 16.
- 192.
Fanfare September, 36th ed., 16.
- 193.
Fanfare May, 28th ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1987). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 22.
- 194.
Fanfare May, 28th ed., 21.
- 195.
The Phoenix Society, The Transgender Phenomenon: You and Your Dual Gender (Phoenix Publications, 1988). Phoenix Publications. ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 17.
- 196.
The Phoenix Society, The Transgender Phenomenon, 2.
- 197.
The Phoenix Society, 4.
- 198.
The Phoenix Society, 4.
- 199.
The Phoenix Society, 14.
- 200.
The Phoenix Society, 16.
- 201.
The Phoenix Society, 20.
- 202.
The Phoenix Society, 21.
- 203.
As a member of the Phoenix noted in a more recent interview: “In those days, even in the Phoenix Society, if you went as far as to have a sex change, there was a feeling that it was because there was maybe something wrong with you and you couldn’t put up with the pressure”—Marelise van der Merwe, ‘Transgender in Focus: Past, Present, Future’, Daily Maverick, 21 July 2015, https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2015-07-21-transgender-in-focus-past-present-future/.
- 204.
Fanfare April, 55th ed. (The Phoenix Society, 1992). ‘Joy Wellbeloved Collection’ – GAL0013. Gay and Lesbian Memory in Action Archive. William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 27.
- 205.
Political Correspondent, ‘Commission Probes Sex Change Law Snags’, The Citizen, 15 March 1984.
- 206.
Elaine, ‘The Twilight World of the Transsexual’.
- 207.
Elaine, ‘The Twilight World of the Transsexual’.
- 208.
Elaine, ‘The Twilight World of the Transsexual’.
- 209.
Political Correspondent, ‘Commission Studying Change of Sex Law’.
- 210.
Citizen Reporter, ‘Sex Change Operations Causing Legal Problems’, The Citizen, 3 September 1987.
- 211.
“Transsexuals are not the same as homosexuals, who know or believe themselves to be of the same sex as the persons to whom they are attracted. Transsexuals, on the other hand, although attracted by members of their own biological sex, regard them as being of the opposite sex”—J Taitz, ‘The Legal Determination of the Sexual Identity of a Post-Operative Transsexual Seen as a Human Rights Issue’, Medicine and Law, 7 (1988), 468.
- 212.
Jerold Taitz, ‘Judicial Determination of the Sexual Identity of Post-Operative Transsexuals: A New Form of Sex Discrimination’, American Journal of Law Medicine XIII, no. 1 (1987), 467.
- 213.
Jerold Taitz, ‘The Legal Consequences of A Sex Change- A Judicial Dilemma’, South African Law Journal 97 (1980): 65–76.
- 214.
Jerold Taitz, ‘The Legal Consequences of A Sex Change- A Judicial Dilemma’, South African Law Journal 97 (1980), 69.
- 215.
Lock Swarr, 62.
- 216.
Lock Swarr, 62.
- 217.
This would become the Births and Deaths Registration Act, no. 51 of 1992.
- 218.
Lock Swarr, 62.
- 219.
Minister of Home Affairs. Births and Deaths Registration Bill (Second Reading of Debate), Debates of the House of Assembly (19 March 1992), 2354.
- 220.
Minister of Home Affairs. Births and Deaths Registration Bill (Second Reading of Debate), 2347.
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Minister of Home Affairs. Births and Deaths Registration Bill (Second Reading of Debate), 2356.
- 222.
Lock Swarr, 63.
- 223.
Lock Swarr, 65.
- 224.
South African Law Commission, ‘South African Law Commission Twenty-Fifth Annual Report – 25 Years of Law Reform’ (Pretoria: South African Law Commission, 1997).
- 225.
In the 1997 Annual Report, the South African Law Commission noted that ‘Project 52 – Investigation into the legal consequences of sexual realignment and related matters’ was under consideration by the Department of Justice. Source: South African Law Commission. ‘South African Law Commission Twenty-Fifth Annual Report – 25 Years of Law Reform’ (Pretoria: South African Law Commission, 1997).
- 226.
Daniel J Ncayiyana, ‘A Window Into the Origins of the South African Medical Profession’, South African Medical Journal 94, no. 10 (October 2004).
- 227.
Chauncey, From Sexual Inversion’, 116.
- 228.
Dubow, 285.
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Meyerowitz, ‘Sex Change and the Popular Press’, 178.
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Meyerowitz, ‘Sex Change and the Popular Press’, 178.
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The Phoenix Society, The Transgender Phenomenon, 17.
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Camminga, B. (2019). The Emergence of a Discourse of Transgender in South Africa. In: Transgender Refugees and the Imagined South Africa. Global Queer Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92669-8_2
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