Abstract
This chapter discusses two examples of research in which I was involved, both of which made use of questionnaires and follow-up focus groups in the quest to explore/regenerate certain aspects of inclusive education. The first project was an international one comprising of six countries, namely, China, Finland, Lithuania, Slovenia, South Africa and the United Kingdom and was aimed at organizing a comparative analysis of teachers’ roles in inclusive education. The team facilitating the focus groups in South Africa (Norma Nel, Dan Tlale and myself) twisted the original research remit to expressly include “intervention”, which evolved also in response to expectations expressed by participants in focus group sessions in a number of schools in Atteridgeville. The second project was a national one (aimed at improving prospects for underperforming schools in South Africa). It was designed from the start to include intervention as part of the research remit. This was built into the project through a number of mechanisms aimed at stimulating creative reviewing of the notion of underperformance, while locating, with participants and stakeholders, leverage for improvements.
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Notes
- 1.
The notion of efficacy derives from Bandura’s (1977) establishment of the concept of “self-efficacy”, which is defined as a judgement on people’s part of their “capability to execute a given type of performance” (Malinen et al., 2013, p. 35). The TEIC consists of 18 statements which are assessed on a Likert scale with 6 response anchors—strongly agree, disagree, disagree somewhat, agree somewhat, agree, and strongly agree Malinen (2013, p. 55) indicates that this instrument is a relatively new one and that the use of it in this project was the first time that it was used. Although the instrument (which consisted of 18 items) offered 6 response anchors using a Likert scale, Malinen suggests that in practice it worked more like a 4-point scale as respondents seldom used the lowest two points.
- 2.
This scale consists of 15 statements assessed by using a Likert scale with four response anchors.
- 3.
Veronica McKay was director of the Community Engagement portfolio in the College of Education at Unisa, and liaised with the Department of Basic Education (DBE) in setting up the project and also worked with researchers in the Department in constructing most of the questionnaire items, while considering their value in relation to the overall design. Others who assisted in developing some of the items from their discipline-based backgrounds were: Prem Heerelal, Luckson Kaino, and Mapheleba Lekhetho.
- 4.
The process worked as follows: for FG interviews, random sampling to select 10% of participating schools was done. From these, the same 5–6 teachers who filled in the questionnaires were requested to be part of the FG; 5–6 learners taught by each of the participating teachers were selected to be part of the FG (this was supposed to be random but some of us suspect that principals and teachers asked the relatively good performers; nonetheless this could still be made to work in practice (as, for example, when I asked them whether they used a buddy system to help their classmates). 5–6 parents of the participating learners were also requested to be part of the FG sessions. The SMT FGs were composed of principals and heads of departments of the subjects concerned.
- 5.
The breakdown per Province of the schools which granted permission for us to conduct the research was as follows: EC: 87%; FS: 96%; KZN: 61%; Limpopo, 49%; Mpumalanga: 26%. In Eastern Cape province 74 principals and 315 teachers from 87 schools were surveyed via the questionnaire. In Free State province 80 principals and 370 teachers from 96 schools were surveyed. In Kwa-Zulu Natal province 55 principals and 218 teachers from 61 schools were surveyed. In Limpopo province 32 principals and 181 teachers from 49 schools were surveyed. In Mpumalanga province 16 principals and 86 teachers from 26 schools were surveyed. (This was the poorest participation of the 5 surveyed provinces.) Across the board, in the schools that did participate the response rate from principals and teachers filling in the questionnaire was high.
- 6.
In our field guide we had in any case (before the workshop) stated that it was important for all facilitators/moderators and assistant moderators/observers to bear in mind that they were required to make a transcript of the tape at the end of the session. We suggested that “it is best to do this as soon as possible after the session while it is still fresh in your memories, so that you can make a good transcript”.
- 7.
Some of the participants, especially parents in rural areas, were not literate in writing; so oral consent to agree to be recorded was deemed to be in order here.
- 8.
Lloyd Tlale, also calls himself Dan (his second name, and the one by which I call him); we came to know each other when we worked together in the other (international) project too.
- 9.
The document makes provision (as in White Paper 6) for such schools to assess, in conjunction with parents/guardians and the affected learner, the value of placing a learner in a special needs school as follows: “In determining the placement of a learner with special education needs, the Head of Department and principal must take into account the rights and wishes of the parents and of such learner, taking into account what will be in the best interest of the learner in any decision-making process” (2009, p. 3).
- 10.
Ndimande points out that in terms of the Group Areas’ Act of 1953, government officials were authorized to forcefully remove those classified as Black “from cities and metropolitan suburban areas that had been declared White. … This practice resulted in the establishment of tightly state-controlled Black settlements in the periphery of cities in what became known as township neighborhoods, which indeed became racially segregated to this day” (2012, p. 224).
- 11.
The analyses reported by Savolainen et al. (2012a) are based on the findings from three of the countries (China, Finland and South Africa); and in their article entitled “understanding teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy in inclusive education” (Savolainen et al., 2012b) they concentrate on comparison of data between Finland and South Africa. The analyses that had been made at this point are what informed our way of proceeding with the South African FG research (and subsequent meetings with stakeholders).
- 12.
To circumvent what she considers to be “adopting an inappropriate technology [in this case questionnaire-based method] from a developed country to use in a developing countries”, Chilisa points to various ways of improving Western-styled questionnaire-based methods (2012, p. 238). She points to the importance, inter alia, of ensuring that “culture- and age sensitive local words, terms, and concepts become incorporated in the [construction of the] questionnaire” (2012, p. 238).
- 13.
As he expounds (2014, p. 129): “The fact that all being and reality is interrelated in the African traditions is not merely a descriptive fact but also one which entails a normative load. The normative package flowing from this view of reality is that, the interrelatedness of being is a state of being we ought to strive to maintain” (my italics).
- 14.
This approach to questionnaires resonates also with Goff’s (2017) account of her involvement in a sociocultural survey concerning the value of environmental water to Aboriginal populations living in Australia’s Murray-Darling Basin. She cautions that it is important not to “maintain the power of interpretation of results in the hands of professional … researchers” such that processes of “synthesizing results become inscrutable” (to participants and stakeholders) (Goff, 2017, p. 188).
- 15.
The team who analyzed the answers to this question did not indicate how many people responded to it, but perhaps this is less important than the quality of the responses.
- 16.
McKay pointed out to me (pers. comm. via email, 10 March 2017) that the money we use in the university comes ultimately from government; but they were not “direct” sponsors of this project.
- 17.
Dan said this to me in the context of our preparation for out writing of our article called nurturing research relationships (Romm & Tlale, 2016).
- 18.
Some analyses and ways of engaging with them are presented in Romm (2017).
- 19.
Subsequent to the official close of the project, McKay, Mohape, Romm also prepared a chapter in a book that could be used as a resource for teachers (and others interested). The book—edited by Magano, Mohapi, and Robinson—is entitled Re-aligning teacher training in the 21st Century, and our chapter is entitled: “Rethinking School Discipline” (2017, pp. 250–270).
- 20.
In effect, as McKay notes (pers. comm., 10 March 2017) Dan was pointing to ways of actioning aspects of the government’s White Paper 6 (and its spirit of inclusivity). This could also be considered as what Liamputtong (2010, p. 81) calls sharing of information which is “useful to the participants” as a way of interacting with participants, so that they can in turn find beneficial the relational encounter with the (professional) researchers.
- 21.
Dan here was referring to the idea that discipline could have been associated with punishment and sometimes corporal punishment—his statement was a reference to another way of seeing discipline that he had tried to suggest during the intervention visit; and the teachers had indicated that “we need to encourage the kids to learn not by saying ‘if you don’t study you will go into punishment”.
- 22.
The data set from the 500 schools project was requested by the program manager of the Program to Support Pro-poor Policy Development, which is a research and capacity building program in the Presidency.
- 23.
Although researchers urging the use of similar scales in comparative research suggest that changes in the scales (adapted to context) might make analytic comparisons more complex, one could suggest that this can still be built into the analyses, as the chosen measures can still be taken as contextually sensitive measures of “similar” constructs (which indeed are more meaningful in the contexts in question).
- 24.
Cram (2010, p. 1) refers to Gergen as “an eminent American social psychologist” and indicates that the “Taos Institute, a North American non-profit organization headed by Kenneth Gergen, … is dedicated to the development of social constructivist theory and practices for the purpose of world benefit” (2010, p. 1). Magnat, in the course of discussing Wilson’s (2008) book Research a ceremony, favorably cites Gergen’s (2009) views on relational being (Magnat, 2012, p. 168).
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Romm, N.R.A. (2018). Active Use of Questionnaires Combined with Focus Group Facilitation: Responsibly Researching Options for Generating Educational Inclusivity. In: Responsible Research Practice. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74386-8_3
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