Abstract
This chapter historicises Manila’s three centuries of intercultural relationship with Europe providing a context for the professionalization of music among the native Filipinos through the church and military. Tracing the genealogy of from the seventeenth-century intercultural engagements with its neighbouring cities and with Europe through the Spanish Empire, native musicians acquired their skills in popular music and their knowledge in the ‘modern’ entertainment labour system, which became advantageous for their employment in the early global music industry in the nineteenth century. The chapter also surveys the different social and cultural forces that helped in the reframing of music and performative practices into its early ‘modern’ contexts within cultural commerce and institutionalised ‘art’ practice.
On approaching the city [of Zubu], the captain-general ordered the ships to fling their banners. The sails were lowered and arranged as if for battle, and all the artillery was fired, an action which caused great fear to those people … When they reached the city, they found a vast crowd of people together with the king, all of whom had been frightened by the mortars. The interpreter told them that that was our custom when entering into such places, as a sign of peace and friendship, and that we had discharged all our mortars to honor the king of the village.
Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage around the World, ed. and trans. James Alexander Robertson, vol. 1 (Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1906), 133. [c.1525].
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Notes
- 1.
Kevin H. O’Rourke and Jeffrey G. Williamson , “When Did Globalization Begin?,” NBER Working Paper Series (Cambridge, 2000), 25.
- 2.
Dennis Owen Flynn and Arturo Giráldez , “Cycles of Silver: Global Economic Unity through the Mid-Eighteenth Century,” Journal of World History 13, no. 2 (2002): 393.
- 3.
Luke Clossey, “Merchants, Migrants, Missionaries, and Globalization in the Early-Modern Pacific,” Journal of Global History 1, no. 1 (March 13, 2006): 41.
- 4.
Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giráldez, “Path Dependence, Time Lags and the Birth of Globalisation. A Critique of O’Rourke and Williamson ,” 2003.
- 5.
The anachronistic act of referring to these countries necessitates polemical reiteration of how the modern nation-states that I use to refer to the geographic locations were not yet configured within our current understanding of them as the modern nation-states. Manila itself was an independent trading port-city that did not have an over-arching organised political affiliation with the other islands that were yet to be organised as unified Spanish colonial territory and later a Philippine nation state.
- 6.
From Bartholome de Letona , O.S.F. Description of Filipinas Islands (La Puebla, Mexico, 1662); Translated by and reprinted in Blair and Robertson, Vol. 36 (1906: 205).
- 7.
Renato Constantino, The Philippines: A Past Revisited, vol. 1–Pre–Sp (Manila: Renato Constantino, 2009), 58.
- 8.
Nick Joaquin . Manila, My Manila. (1990).
- 9.
For more information on the Galleon Trade see Charles Ralph Boxer, The Manila Galleon, History Today, vol. 8 (New York: E.P. Dutton and Company, 1958); and Shirley Fish, The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific: With an Annotated List of the Transpacific Galleons 1565–1815 (Milton Keynes: AuthorHouse UK, Ltd., 2011). In “Eastward Crossing: The Galleon Route from Manila to Acapulco”, Marya Svetlana Camacho provides a succinct summary of the travel cycle.
- 10.
Irving, D. R. M. Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Modern Manila (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 24.
- 11.
Ibid., 221. Translated and quoted from: Murillo Velarde’s Historia de la Provincia de Philipinas de la Compañia de Jesús. Suganda parte, que comprehende los progresos de esta provincial desde el año de 1616 hasta el de 1716 (Manila: en la Imprenta de Compañia de Jesús, por D. Nicolas de la Cruz Bagay, 1749).
- 12.
Ibid., 220.
- 13.
I discussed this further in the Overture.
- 14.
A.G. Hopkins , editor. Globalization in World History (W.W. Norton, 2002).
- 15.
John Lonsdale, “Globalization, Ethnicity and Democracy: A View from ‘the Hopeless Continent,’” in Globalisation in World History, ed. Anthony G. Hopkins (London: Pimlico, 2006), 3.
- 16.
Appadurai, Arjun. Modernity at Large. Public Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).
- 17.
Lonsdale, “Globalization, Ethnicity and Democracy: A View from ‘the Hopeless Continent,’” 3.
- 18.
Ibid.
- 19.
Bayly, C. A. The Birth of the Modern World 1780–1914, Global Connections and Comparisons (Malden, Massachussetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2014).
- 20.
Christopher Alan Bayly points to the uniformity as an important feature of globalisation and modernity. Bayly clarifies that ‘[u]niformity is not the same as homogeneity. Uniformity means adjusting practice to create similarities on a larger scale.’ Bayly, C. A. The Birth of the Modern World 1780-1914, Global Connections and Comparisons (Malden, Massachussetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2014), 14.
- 21.
B D Hopkins, The Making of Modern, Economic and Social Change, vol. 1 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1971), 16.
- 22.
Anthony G. Hopkins, Globalisation in World History, ed. Anthony G. Hopkins, Globalisation in World History (London: Pimlico, 2006).
- 23.
Irving, D. R. M. Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Modern Manila (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 55.
- 24.
Irving, D. R. M. Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Modern Manila (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 25; Walter Robb, “Introduction,” in History of the Philippine Church, ed. Carlos C. Grant (Manila: The Philippine Revolutionary Press, 2011), 4.
- 25.
‘The Laws of the Indies’ [Spanish: Leyes de Indias] is the entire collection of decrees issued by the Spanish colonial government for its colonial possessions including the Philippines. These laws , which controlled the economic and socio-political affairs of the colonial territories, regulated the relations between the natives and the settlers, as well as the rules on town-building and planning. For summaries and annotations of the ‘Laws of the Indies’ see: Herbert E. Bolton, “The Mission as a Frontier Institution in the Spanish-American Colonies,” The American Historical Review 23, no. 1 (1917): 42–61; Axel I. Mundigo and Dora P. Crouch, “The City Planning Ordinances of the Laws of the Indies Revisited. Part I: Their Philosophy and Implications,” The Town Planning Review 48, no. 3 (1977): 247–268.
- 26.
See: William H. Scott, Barangay. Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society, c. 1994 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994).
- 27.
Constantino, The Philippines: A Past Revisited, 1–Pre–Sp:88.
- 28.
Hopkins , Anthony G. “Introduction: Globalization - An Agenda for Historians,” in Globalisation in World History, ed. Anthony G. Hopkins (London: Pimlico, 2006), 3.
- 29.
Bayly, C. A. The Birth of the Modern World 1780–1914, Global Connections and Comparisons (Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2014), 332.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Reduccion bajo del toque de la campana System [resettlement under the sound of the bell ] was a resettlement policy instituted by the Spanish Synod of Manila in 1582, designed as a system of administrating the Philippine colonies. Through the system, Spanish missionaries enticed the natives to build their houses and settlements around the churches . This system also made taxation among its parishioners easy (Agoncillo 1990, c.1977: 80).
- 32.
Vanessa Agnew, Orpheus Enlightenment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 96.
- 33.
See: Austin , John, Urmson, J. O., and Sbisà, Marina, How to Do Things with Words – Google Books (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975); Greg Dening , Performances (Melbourne: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Will Earhart and Eric Clarke, Music in Everyday Life, Music Educators Journal, vol. 22 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1936).
- 34.
97.
- 35.
Agnew , Orpheus Enlightenment, 97–98.
- 36.
98.
- 37.
For further discussion on ‘ritualisation of culture’ see: Gunter Senft and Ellen B Basso, Ritual Communication, ed. Gunter Senft and Ellen B. Basso, Wenner-Gren International Symposium Series (New York: Berg, 2009).
- 38.
Salubong is the religious drama portraying the meeting of Mary and Jesus on Easter dawn.
- 39.
Panunuluyan is the dramatisation of Joseph and Mary’s search for an inn: whole towns are turned into Bethlehem with the couple riding their horse pleading for lodging in different houses plotted around town and ending in the church with a staged manger.
- 40.
Pastores is the Christmas dance and musical celebration of the shepherds.
- 41.
Jaime Escobar y Lozano, El Indicador Del Viajero En Las Islas Filipinas, 1st ed. (Manila: Chofre, 1885), 82–83.
- 42.
See Margaret R Hunt et al., The Middling Sort Page: Commerce, Gender, and the Family in England, 1680–1780 (Berkeley: U of California Press, 1996).
- 43.
See Teodoro A. Agoncillo , History of the Filipino People (Quezon City: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co., 1990, c.1977).
- 44.
Floro L. Mercene, Manila Men in the New World: Filipino Migration to Mexico and the Americas from the Sixteenth Century (Quezon City: University of the Phillipines Press, 2007), 6.
- 45.
Filomeno V. Aguilar Jr., Routes to Modernity: Philippine Labor Migration in the Age of Empire, ed. Maria Dolores Elizalde and Josep M. Delgado, Filipinas, Un País Entre Dos Imperios (Barcelona: Ed. Bellatera, 2011), 84–85.
- 46.
Benedict Anderson , Imagined Community: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Revised (Manila: Anvil Publishing, Inc., 1993), 524.
- 47.
Max Weber , The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism trans. Talcott Parsons (London/New York: Routledge, 2005), xxx.
- 48.
Padre Chirino Relaccion de las Islas Filipinas, translated and reprinted by Emma Helen, and James Alexander Robertson in The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 (Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1906).
- 49.
One of the earliest, and still remaining, fundamental literature on this topic is: Walter J. Ong and John Arthur Edmund Hartley, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word,3rd ed. (London/New York: Routledge, 1982). Also see: Jack Goody and Ian Watt, “The Consequences of Literacy,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 5, no. 3 (1963): 304.
- 50.
‘Acoustemelogy’ was coined by Steven Feld in ‘Waterfalls of Song: An Acoustemology of Place Resounding in Bosavi, Papua New Guinea,’ in Senses of Place, ed. Steven Feld and Keith. H. Basso (Sta. Fe: School of American Research Press, 1996), 91–135. I expand its application here to enquire into general experiences of sounds (including music) and its relationship with the understanding of modernity.
- 51.
The ‘Opinion’ was prefixed in the Chronicas of Juan Francisco de San Antonio; published in Manila in 1738. Translation and reprinted by Blair and Robertson in The Philippine Islands, vol. 40, (1906: 286); It is also noteworthy to mention that in an earlier publication, Velarde also regarded ‘Filipino knowledge of solfa was a phenomenon that had no equivalent in all of Christendom’ (Irving 2010: 121).
- 52.
Jose Rizal, The Social Cancer (New York: World Book Company, 1912), 202; Trans. By Charles Derbyshire from Noli me Tangere , © 1887.
- 53.
D.R.M. Irving , “The Hispanization of Filipino Music,” in Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Modem Manila (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 99–133.
- 54.
Elena Rivera Mirano , “The Case of Marcelo Adonay, Musician,” in The Life & Works of Marcelo Adonay, vol. 1 (Quezon City: U of the Philippines Press, 2009), 12; originally from: Nick Joaquin’s “Sa Loob ng Maynila,” printed in the programme notes of Nick Joaquin’s Portrait of an Artist as a Filipino staged at the Cultural Center of the Philippines , July 2000.
- 55.
Fernando Valdes Tamon “Survey of the Filipinas Islands” (Manila, 1739) in Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson , The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, vol. 47 (Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1906).
- 56.
Mirano , “The Case of Marcelo Adonay, Musician,” 9.
- 57.
Irving, D. R. M. Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Modern Manila (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 168.
- 58.
Blair and Robertson , Blair, Robertson 1905 – The Philippine Islands 149, vol. 45, 245. Reprinted from Archipielago Filipino (Washington, 1900).
- 59.
Ibid.
- 60.
Ibid.
- 61.
Irving, D. R. M. Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Modern Manila (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 111–112.
- 62.
Beaterios are schools run by religious orders to educate girls from different ranks of the society in good home-making, culinary arts, as well as literature and music.
- 63.
Hilarion F. Rubio , “A Brief Survey of Band Development in the Philippines,” in Philippine Bands, ed. Augusto C. Bataclan (Manila: National Band Association of the Philippines, 1977), 4.
- 64.
Ibid.
- 65.
For a description of the typical liturgical calendar of religious events that were celebrated in colonial Manila, see for example: Quijano de Manila, “The Ceremonies of Intramuros,” in Intramuros, ed. Nick Joaquin (Manila: Philippine Daily Inquirer, Inc., 1988); and Ma. Luisa T. Camagay, Kasaysayang Panlipunan Ng Maynila 1765–1898 (Quezon City: Maria Luisa T. Camagay, 1992), 74–78.
- 66.
Manila theatre historian Cristina Laconico Buenaventura documents the presence of 26 theatres in Manila between 1846–1896. See: Cristina Laconico Buenaventura , The Theater in Manila 1846–1946, 2nd Ed. (Manila: De La Salle University Press, 2010), 48.
- 67.
Ma Patricia Brillantes -Silvestre, “Music and History in the Manila of Marcelo Adonay,” in Music and History in the Manila of Marcelo Adonay, ed. Elena Rivera Mirano (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 2009), 53–88.
- 68.
Raymundo C Bañas , Filipino Music and Theater (Quezon City: Manlapaz Publishing Co., 1969), 148.
- 69.
Ibid., 148–149.
- 70.
See: Ibid., 149–54; Blair and Robertson , Blair, Robertson 1905 – The Philippine Islands 149, vol. 45, 245. Reprinted from Archipielago Filipino (Washington, 1900).
- 71.
Ibid., vol. 45, 245.
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yamomo, m. (2018). Chapter 2 The Tolling of an Early Global City: Genealogies of Cultural Modernities. In: Theatre and Music in Manila and the Asia Pacific, 1869-1946. Transnational Theatre Histories. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69176-3_3
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