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Animals Off the Menu: A Racist Proposal?

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Animals, Race, and Multiculturalism

Part of the book series: The Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series ((PMAES))

Abstract

This chapter reflects on whether the vegan injunction to not kill and hurt animals is inherently racist, and, in the South African and African context, whether cultural reasons can be fairly used to deny animal rights. The chapter considers two examples in which cultural reasons were invoked to deny animal rights, and animal rights endeavours were cast as racist. It examines both African and Western conceptions of animals and argues that almost all human cultures maintain a conspiracy against animals. The chapter submits that vegan activism is not inherently racist and that opposing racism is consistent with veganism , implying that it is inconsistent to oppose racism and not oppose animal killing and harm. It concludes that anti-racism and veganism are appropriately considered as aligned social justice projects.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Elisa Galgut, e-mail message to author, 26 July 2016. Elisa Galgut is a co-proposer and co-author of the above proposal.

  2. 2.

    Although not endorsing animal rights, in February 2017 Germany’s environmental minister, Barbara Hendricks, banned the serving of meat at official functions so that the ministry could act as a “role-model” in curbing climate-damaging emissions. Dominique Mosbergen, “German Environment Minister Bans Meat at Official Functions”, Huffington Post, 22 February 2017, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/germany-meat-ban-environment-ministry_us_58ae1b24e4b01406012f962b.

  3. 3.

    Marianne Thamm, “Fanon Meets Biko Meets JM Coetzee as UCT Academic Row Over Food Highlights Racial Fault Lines”, Daily Maverick, 13 July 2016, http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2016-07-13-fanon-meets-biko-meets-jm-coetzee-as-uct-academic-row-over-food-highlights-racial-fault-lines/.

  4. 4.

    David Benatar, Elisa Galgut and Greg Fried. “A Response to Adam Haupt’s Proposal to Censure Members of the Faculty Board”, 16 March 2016.

  5. 5.

    Thamm, “Fanon Meets Biko”.

  6. 6.

    Benatar, Galgut, and Fried, “A Response to Adam Haupt’s Proposal”.

  7. 7.

    Thamm, “Fanon Meets Biko”.

  8. 8.

    There are halaal and kosher requirements but Islam and Judaism do not prescribe animal eating. If slaughterhouse workers lose jobs via a shift to vegan food production, this need not raise an ethical issue for a rights position because such workers have no rights to “jobs that exploit and tyrannise”. Martha Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006), 394.

  9. 9.

    Tim Cohen, “Zulu King Revives Traditional Ceremonies to Build Support,” Associated Press, 11 December 1995, http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1995/Zulu-King-Revives-Traditional-Ceremonies-to-Build-Support/id-9d733c636dbfa01ca11408e76769f7d4.

  10. 10.

    Ibid.

  11. 11.

    Vusumuzi Ka Nzapheza, “SPCA: Cruelty, not Culture, is the Issue,” Independent Online, 24 January 2007, http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/spca-cruelty-not-culture-is-the-issue-312178.

  12. 12.

    Murray Williams and Natasha Prince, “Yengeni Ritual Spearheads Cultural Row,” Independent Online, 23 January 2007, http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/yengeni-ritual-spearheads-cultural-row-312064.

  13. 13.

    M. Paul Lewis, Gary F. Simons, and, Charles D. Fennig, eds., “South Africa,” Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 19th edition (Dallas, Texas: SIL International, 2016), https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ZA/languages.

  14. 14.

    I do not wish to suggest that a majority view must be wrong when it conflicts with a minority view, simply because it is a majority view. An independent argument for a majority view’s wrongfulness is required.

  15. 15.

    Gary L. Francione, Animals as Persons: Essays on the Abolition of Animal Exploitation (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 17.

  16. 16.

    Paula Casal, “Is Multiculturalism Bad for Animals?” Journal of Political Philosophy 11, no. 1 (2003): 1–22. Maneesha Deckha, “Toward a Postcolonial, Posthumanist Feminist Theory: Centralizing Race and Culture in Feminist Work on Nonhuman Animals”, Hypatia 27, no. 3 (2012): 527–545.

  17. 17.

    Ibid., 538.

  18. 18.

    Ashley Doane, “What is Racism? Racial Discourse and Racial Politics”, Critical Sociology 32, no. 2–3 (2006): 255-274. Thomas Schmid, “The Definition of Racism”, Journal of Applied Philosophy 13, no. 1 (1996): 31–40. Lawrence Blum, I’m Not a Racist, But…The Moral Quandary of Race (New York: Cornell University Press, 2002), 8.

  19. 19.

    Joe Feagin, Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression (New York: Routledge; 2006).

  20. 20.

    Vivienne Bozalek, “The Effect of Institutional Racism on Student Family Circumstances: A Human Capabilities Perspective”. South African Journal of Psychology 40, no. 4 (2010): 487–494. Medha Imam, “Panelists Deliberate on Institutional Racism”, eNCA, 13 April 2016, https://www.enca.com/south-africa/panelists-deliberate-institutional-racism.

  21. 21.

    “Racism: Penny Sparrow Fined R150K, Community Service for Theunissen”, City Press, 10 June 2016, http://city-press.news24.com/News/racism-penny-sparrow-fined-r150k-community-service-for-theunissen-20160610.

  22. 22.

    Joe Feagin and Sean Elias, “Rethinking Racial Formation Theory: A Systemic Racism Critique”, Ethnic and Racial Studies 36, no. 6 (2013): 936, 337, 944–946.

  23. 23.

    Ibid., 936–937. Feagin, Systemic Racism, 25.

  24. 24.

    Ibid.

  25. 25.

    Culture is here understood generically to refer to shared customs, rituals, practices, beliefs and values of a group.

  26. 26.

    Culum Brown, “Fish Pain: An Inconvenient Truth”, Animal Sentience: An Interdisciplinary Journal on Animal Feeling 1, no. 3 (2016): 32. Sentience in bivalves like oysters and mussels is still debated. Robyn Crook and Edgar T. Walters. “Nociceptive Behavior and Physiology of Molluscs: Animal Welfare Implications”. ILAR Journal 52, no. 2 (2011): 188.

  27. 27.

    Joan Dunayer, Animal Equality: Language and Liberation (Derwood, MD: Ryce, 2001). Paola Cavalieri, The Animal Question: Why Nonhuman Animals Deserve Human Rights (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 139. Tom Regan, Animal Rights, Human Wrongs: An Introduction to Moral Philosophy (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003). Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice, 384–388. Gary Steiner, Animals and the Moral Community: Mental Life, Moral Status, and Kinship (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008). Francione, Animals as Persons. Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka, Zoopolis: A political Theory of Animal Rights (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

  28. 28.

    Peter Singer, Animal Liberation (London: Thorsons, 1975, 1990), 229. Peter Singer, “Speciesism and Moral Status”, Metaphilosophy 40, no. 3–4 (2009): 576.

  29. 29.

    As to how much weight to attach to future plans in judging the harm of death Singer has “no clear answer”. Ibid.

  30. 30.

    Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice, 384.

  31. 31.

    Ibid., 351, 357, 361, 384, 387.

  32. 32.

    Ibid., 391, 393–394. Compare to Robert Garner, A Theory of Justice for Animals: Animal Rights in a Nonideal World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 18, 135.

  33. 33.

    Gary L. Francione, Introduction to Animal Rights: Your Child or Your Dog? (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000), 215.

  34. 34.

    “I am impatient with questions that imply that creatures have to pass a test concocted in a philosophy department before they can be permitted to live”. J.C Kannemeyer, J.M. Coetzee: A Life in Writing (Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball, 2012) 589–590.

  35. 35.

    Francione, Animals as Persons.

  36. 36.

    Ibid., 17, 65, 107–116, 127.

  37. 37.

    Robert Garner, The Political Theory of Animal Rights (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005). Alasdair Cochrane, An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory (New York: Palgrave, 2010). Siobhan O’Sullivan, Animals, Equality and Democracy (New York: Palgrave, 2011). Donaldson and Kymlicka, Zoopolis. Garner, A Theory of Justice for Animals.

  38. 38.

    Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka, “Locating Animals in Political Philosophy”, Forthcoming (2016): 1. Donaldson and Kymlicka, Zoopolis, 9, 256.

  39. 39.

    Ibid.

  40. 40.

    Singer, Animal Liberation.

  41. 41.

    Francione, Animals as Persons. Gary Steiner, “Justice Towards Animals Demands Veganism”, Australian Humanities Review 51 (2011).

  42. 42.

    Mary Midgley, “On Trying Out One’s New Sword”, in Heart and Mind: The Varieties of Moral Experience, ed. Mary Midgley (London: Methuen Press, 1981), 162.

  43. 43.

    Corey Lee Wrenn and Rob Johnson, “A Critique of Single-issue Campaigning and the Importance of Comprehensive Abolitionist Vegan Advocacy”, Food, Culture & Society 16, no. 4 (2013): 665.

  44. 44.

    Amie Harper, “Race as a ‘feeble matter’ in Veganism: Interrogating Whiteness, Geopolitical Privilege, and Consumption Philosophy of ‘cruelty-free’ Products”, Journal for Critical Animal Studies 8, no. 3 (2010): 5–27. Deckha, “Toward a Postcolonial, Posthumanist Feminist Theory”. Anthony J. Nocella, “Challenging Whiteness in the Animal Advocacy Movement”, Journal for Critical Animal Studies 10, no. 1 (2012), 142–154. Corey Lee Wrenn, “The Role of Professionalization Regarding Female Exploitation in the Nonhuman Animal Rights Movement”, Journal of Gender Studies 24, no. 2 (2015): 131–146. Jessica Beth Greenebaum, “Questioning the Concept of Vegan Privilege: A Commentary”, Humanity & Society (2016): 1–18.

  45. 45.

    Harper, “Race as a “feeble matter” in Veganism,” 14–19.

  46. 46.

    Ibid., 16–18.

  47. 47.

    Williams and Prince, “Yengeni Ritual Spearheads Cultural Row”.

  48. 48.

    Ibid.

  49. 49.

    Nzapheza, “SPCA: Cruelty, not Culture, is the Issue”.

  50. 50.

    Kai Horsthemke, Animals and African Ethics (UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 1.

  51. 51.

    Ibid., 45, 55.

  52. 52.

    Ibid., 45.

  53. 53.

    John Mbiti, Introduction to African Religion (London: Heinemann, 1975), 9. Peter Kasenene, Religious Ethics in Africa (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 1998), 18.

    Horsthemke, Animals and African Ethics, 31.

  54. 54.

    Will Kymlicka, Sue Donaldson. “Animal Rights and Aboriginal Rights”. In Animal Law in Canada, by Vaughan Black. Toronto: Irwin, Forthcoming. 3. http://www.academia.edu/download/33290162/black_sykes_resubmit_dec_29.docx.

  55. 55.

    Midgley, “On Trying Out One’s New Sword”, 162.

  56. 56.

    See also David Benatar, “Culture Does Not Justify Cruelty”, Independent Online, 18 November 2009, http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/culture-does-not-justify-cruelty-464987.

  57. 57.

    While some people are uncomfortable with any comparisons between humans and animals, discussions of animals’ moral value make non comparisons impossible.

  58. 58.

    Diane L. Beers, For the Prevention of Cruelty: The History and Legacy of Animal Rights Activism in the United States (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006), 52–54.

  59. 59.

    Michelè Pickover, Animal Rights in South Africa (Johannesburg: Juta and Company, 2005). Gail A. Eisnitz, Slaughterhouse: The Shocking Story of Greed, Neglect, and Inhumane Treatment Inside the US Meat Industry (New York: Prometheus Books, 2009).

  60. 60.

    Thandi Puoane, Princess Matwa, Hazel Bradley and G. D. Hughes, “Socio-cultural Factors Influencing Food Consumption Patterns in the Black African Population in an Urban Township in South Africa”, Human Ecology Special Issue 14 (2006): 92.

  61. 61.

    Erica Fudge, “Why it’s Easy Being a Vegetarian”. Textual Practice 24, no. 1 (2010).

  62. 62.

    Steiner, “Justice Towards Animals Demands Veganism”. Gary Steiner, Anthropocentrism and its Discontents: The Moral Status of Animals in the History of Western Philosophy (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005).

  63. 63.

    OECD. “Meat Consumption”. Accessed 20 August 2016. doi:10.1787/fa290fd0-en.

  64. 64.

    Ibid.

  65. 65.

    Ibid.

  66. 66.

    Ibid.

  67. 67.

    Ibid.

  68. 68.

    Peter Flügel, “Jainism”, Encyclopaedia of Global Studies 3 (2012): 976.

  69. 69.

    Claire Jean Kim, “Multiculturalism Goes Imperial”, Du Bois Review: Social Science and Research on Race 4, no. 01 (2007): 240.

  70. 70.

    Exceptions are self-defence, legal killing in war and legalised death penalties.

  71. 71.

    Cathryn Bailey, “We Are What we Eat: Feminist Vegetarianism and the Reproduction of Racial Identity,” Hypatia 22, no. 2 (2007): 43. Fudge, “Why it’s Easy Being a Vegetarian”.

  72. 72.

    Bailey, “We Are What we Eat”, 43. Charles Patterson, Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust. (New York: Lantern Books, 2002). Claire Jean Kim, “Moral Extensionism or Racist Exploitation? The Use of Holocaust and Slavery Analogies in the Animal Liberation Movement”, New Political Science 33, no. 3 (2011): 314. Deckha, “Toward a Postcolonial, Posthumanist Feminist Theory”.

  73. 73.

    Carol, J. Adams, Neither Man nor Beast: Feminism and the Defense of Animals (New York: Continuum, 1995). Carol, J. Adams, The Sexual Politics of Meat (New York: Continuum, 1990).

  74. 74.

    David Pellow. Total liberation. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014), 2. Steve Best. The Politics of Total Liberation: Revolution for the 21st Century. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).

  75. 75.

    Stephanie Jenkins and Vasile Stanescu. ‘‘One Struggle’’ in Defining Critical Animal Studies: An Intersectional Social Justice Approach for Liberation, ed. Anthony J. Nocella II, John Sorenson, Kim Socha and Atsuko Matsuoka (New York: Peter Lang, 2014), 74.

  76. 76.

    Anthony J. Nocella II, John Sorenson, Kim Socha and Atsuko Matsuoka. “The Emergence of Critical Animal Studies: The Rise of Intersectional Animal Liberation Anthony”, in Defining Critical Animal Studies: An Intersectional Social Justice Approach for Liberation, ed. Anthony J. Nocella II, John Sorenson, Kim Socha and Atsuko Matsuoka (New York: Peter Lang, 2014), xxvii.

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  1. Centre for Innovation in Learning and Teaching, University of Cape Town, Upper Campus, PD Hahn, level 7, room 7.47, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa

    Michael Glover

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  1. Department of Philosophy (Zhuhai), Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, South Africa

    Luís Cordeiro-Rodrigues

  2. University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa

    Les Mitchell

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Glover, M. (2017). Animals Off the Menu: A Racist Proposal?. In: Cordeiro-Rodrigues, L., Mitchell, L. (eds) Animals, Race, and Multiculturalism . The Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66568-9_8

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