Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of biological approaches to motivational psychology. These approaches see the affective evaluation of stimuli as the foundation of motivation and locate this process as well as its outcomes in specific areas of the brain (amygdala, striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, hypothalamus). They also discuss the role of neurotransmitters and hormones. This chapter presents general principles and mechanisms of motivational processes and their delineation from other forms of behavioral regulation as well as a few specific motivational systems (eating, social affiliation, dominance, sexuality).
References
Adolphs, R., & Tranel, D. (2000). Emotion recognition and the human amygdala. In J. P. Aggleton (Ed.), The amygdala. A functional analysis (pp. 587–630). New York: Oxford University Press.
Aharon, I., Etcoff, N., Ariely, D., Chabris, C. F., O’Connor, E., & Breiter, H. C. (2001). Beautiful faces have variable reward value: fMRI and behavioral evidence. Neuron, 32, 537–551.
Albert, D. J., Jonik, R. H., & Walsh, M. L. (1992). Hormone-dependent aggression in male and female rats: Experiential, hormonal, and neural foundations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 16, 177–192.
Albert, D. J., Petrovic, D. M., Walsh, M. L., & Jonik, R. H. (1989). Medial accumbens lesions attenuate testosterone-dependent aggression in male rats. Physiology & Behavior, 46, 625–631.
Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological Review, 64, 359–372.
Atkinson, J. W. (1981). Studying personality in the context of an advanced motivational psychology. American Psychologist, 36, 117–128.
Atkinson, J. W., & Birch, D. (1970). The dynamics of action. New York: Wiley.
Balleine, B. W., Delgado, M. R., & Hikosaka, O. (2007). The role of the dorsal striatum in reward and decision-making. Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 8161–8165.
Bartels, A., & Zeki, S. (2000). The neural basis of romantic love. Neuroreport, 11, 3829–3834.
Bartels, A., & Zeki, S. (2004). The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love. NeuroImage, 21, 1155–1166.
Baum, M. J. (1992). Neuroendocrinology of sexual behavior in the male. In J. B. Becker, S. M. Breedlove, & D. Crews (Eds.), Behavioral endocrinology (pp. 97–130). Cambridge, MA: MIT.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. R. (2000). Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 10, 295–307.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science, 275, 1293–1295.
Berridge, K. C. (1996). Food reward: Brain substrates of wanting and liking. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 20, 1–25.
Berridge, K. C. (2001). Reward learning: Reinforcement, incentives and expectations. In D. L. Medin (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. Bd. 40, pp. 223–278). New York: Academic.
Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2015). Pleasure systems in the brain. Neuron, 86, 646–664.
Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (1998). What is the role of dopamine in reward: Hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Research Reviews, 28, 309–369.
Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (2003). Parsing reward. Trends in Neurosciences, 26, 507–513.
Billington, C. J., & Levine, A. S. (1992). Hypothalamic neuropeptide Y regulation of feeding and energy metabolism. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 2, 847–851.
Bindra, D. (1978). How adaptive behavior is produced: A perceptual-motivational alternative to response-reinforcement. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 41–91.
Blood, A. J., & Zatorre, R. J. (2001). Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98, 11818–11823.
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670–686.
Bromberg-Martin, E. S., Matsumoto, M., & Hikosaka, O. (2010). Dopamine in motivational control: Rewarding, aversive, and alerting. Neuron, 68, 815–834.
Cabanac, M. (1971). Physiological role of pleasure. Science, 173, 1103–1107.
Cabanac, M. (1992). Pleasure: The common currency. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 155, 173–200.
Cabanac, M. (2014). The fifth influence. Or, the dialectics of pleasure (2nd ed.). Green Bay, WI: BookWhirl.
Cahill, L. (2000). Modulation of long-term memory in humans by emotional arousal: Adrenergic activation and the amygdala. In J. P. Aggleton (Ed.), The amygdala. A functional analysis (pp. 425–446). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cardinal, R. N., Parkinson, J. A., Hall, J., & Everitt, B. J. (2002). Emotion and motivation: The role of the amygdala, ventral striatum, and prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 26, 321–352.
Carroll, L., Voisey, J., & van Daal, A. (2004). Mouse models of obesity. Clinics in Dermatology, 22, 345–349.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Corr, P. J., Pickering, A. D., & Gray, J. A. (1997). Personality, punishment, and procedural learning: A test of J.A. Gray’s anxiety theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 337–344.
Craig, A. D. (2009). How do you feel – now? The anterior insula and human awareness. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 59–70.
Craig, W. (1918). Appetites and aversions as constituents of instincts. Biological Bulletin of Woods Hole, 34, 91–107.
Dabbs, J. M., Frady, R. L., Carr, T. S., & Besch, N. F. (1987). Saliva testosterone and criminal violence in young adult prison inmates. Psychosomatic Medicine, 49, 174–182.
Dabbs, J. M., & Hargrove, M. F. (1997). Age, testosterone, and behavior among female prison inmates. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59, 477–480.
Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes’ error. Emotion, reason, and the human brain. London: Papermac.
Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. New York: Appleton.
de Araujo, I. E., Kringelbach, M. L., Rolls, E. T., & Hobden, P. (2003). Representation of umami taste in the human brain. Journal of Neurophysiology, 90, 313–319.
Delville, Y., DeVries, G. J., & Ferris, C. F. (2000). Neural connections of the anterior hypothalamus and agonistic behavior in golden hamsters. Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 55, 53–76.
Depue, R. A., & Collins, P. F. (1999). Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 491–569.
Depue, R. A., Luciana, M., Arbisi, P., Collins, P., & Leon, A. (1994). Dopamine and the structure of personality: Relation of agonist-induced dopamine activity to positive emotionality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 485–498.
Depue, R. A., & Morrone-Strupinsky, J. V. (2005). A neurobehavioral model of affiliative bonding: Implications for conceptualizing a human trait of affiliation. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 313–350. discussion 350–395.
Domjan, M., Blesbois, E., & Williams, J. (1998). The adaptive significance of sexual conditioning: Pavlovian control of sperm release. Psychological Science, 9, 411–415.
Eisenegger, C., Naef, M., Snozzi, R., Heinrichs, M., & Fehr, E. (2010). Prejudice and truth about the effect of testosterone on human bargaining behaviour. Nature, 463, 356–359.
Epstein, L. H., Truesdale, R., Wojcik, A., Paluch, R. A., & Raynor, H. A. (2003). Effects of deprivation on hedonics and reinforcing value of food. Physiology and Behavior, 78, 221–227.
Everitt, B. J. (1990). Sexual motivation: A neural and behavioural analysis of the mechanisms underlying appetitive and copulatory responses of male rats. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 14, 217–232.
Eysenck, H. J. (1967). The biological basis of personality. Springfield, Ill: Thomas.
Fleming, A. S., Corter, C., Franks, P., Surbey, M., Schneider, B., & Steiner, M. (1993). Postpartum factors related to mother’s attraction to newborn infant odors. Developmental Psychobiology, 26, 115–132.
Friedman, J. M., & Halaas, J. L. (1998). Leptin and the regulation of body weight in mammals. Nature, 395, 763–770.
Fuster, J. M. (2001). The prefrontal cortex – an update: Time is of the essence. Neuron, 30, 319–333.
Gianotti, M., Roca, P., & Palou, A. (1988). Body weight and tissue composition in rats made obese by a cafeteria diet. Effect of 24 hours starvation. Hormone and Metabolic Research, 20, 208–212.
Graham, J. M., & Desjardins, C. (1980). Classical conditioning: Induction of luteinizing hormone and testosterone secretion in anticipation of sexual activity. Science, 210, 1039–1041.
Gray, J. A. (1971). The psychology of fear and stress. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gray, J. A. (1981). A critique of Eysenck’s theory of personality. In H. J. Eysenck (Ed.), A model for personality (pp. 246–276). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
Gray, P. B., Chapman, J. F., Burnham, T. C., McIntyre, M. H., Lipson, S. F., & Ellison, P. T. (2004). Human male pair bonding and testosterone. Human Nature, 15, 119–131.
Greenough, A., Cole, G., Lewis, J., Lockton, A., & Blundell, J. (1998). Untangling the effects of hunger, anxiety, and nausea on energy intake during intravenous cholecystokinin octapeptide (CCK-8) infusion. Physiology and Behavior, 65, 303–310.
Hall, J. L., Stanton, S. J., & Schultheiss, O. C. (2010). Biopsychological and neural processes of implicit motivation. In O. C. Schultheiss & J. C. Brunstein (Eds.), Implicit motives (pp. 279–307). New York: Oxford University Press.
Harlow, H., & Harlow, M. H. (1966). Learning to love. American Scientist, 54, 244–272.
Hepper, P. G. (1994). Long-term retention of kinship recognition established during infancy in the domestic dog. Behavioural Processes, 33, 3–14.
Ikemoto, S., & Panksepp, J. (1999). The role of nucleus accumbens dopamine in motivated behavior: A unifying interpretation with special reference to reward-seeking. Brain Research Reviews, 31, 6–41.
Insel, T. R. (1997). A neurobiological basis of social attachment. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 726–735.
Insel, T. R., Winslow, J. T., Wang, Z., & Young, L. J. (1998). Oxytocin, vasopressin, and the neuroendocrine basis of pair bond formation. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 449, 215–224.
Irani, B. G., & Haskell-Luevano, C. (2005). Feeding effects of melanocortin ligands – a historical perspective. Peptides, 26, 1788–1799.
Kendrick, K. M. (2004). The neurobiology of social bonds. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 16, 1007–1008.
Keverne, E. B., & Curley, J. P. (2004). Vasopressin, oxytocin and social behaviour. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14, 777–783.
Keverne, E. B., & Kendrick, K. M. (1994). Maternal behaviour in sheep and its neuroendocrine regulation. Acta Paediatrica. Supplement, 397, 47–56.
Keverne, E. B., Martensz, N. D., & Tuite, B. (1989). Beta-endorphin concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid of monkeys are influenced by grooming relationships. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 14, 155–161.
Killcross, S., Robbins, T. W., & Everitt, B. J. (1997). Different types of fear-conditioned behaviour mediated by separate nuclei within amygdala. Nature, 388, 377–380.
Klüver, H., & Bucy, P. C. (1937). “Psychic blindness” and other symptoms following bilateral temporal lobectomy in rhesus monkeys. American Journal of Physiology, 119, 352–353.
Klüver, H., & Bucy, P. C. (1939). Preliminary analysis of functions of the temporal lobes in monkeys. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 42, 979–1000.
Koepp, M. J., Gunn, R. N., Lawrence, A. D., Cunningham, V. J., Dagher, A., Jones, T., et al. (1998). Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature, 393, 266–268.
Kosfeld, M., Heinrichs, M., Zak, P. J., Fischbacher, U., & Fehr, E. (2005). Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature, 435, 673–676.
Kohls, G., Perino, M. T., Taylor, J. M., Madva, E. N., Cayless, S. J., Troiani, V., … Schultz, R. T. (2013). The nucleus accumbens is involved in both the pursuit of social reward and the avoidance of social punishment. Neuropsychologia, 51(11), 2062-2069. doi: S0028-3932(13)00249-2 [pii] 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.07.020
Kringelbach, M. L. (2005). The human orbitofrontal cortex: Linking reward to hedonic experience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6, 691–702.
LeDoux, J. E. (2012). Rethinking the emotional brain. Neuron, 73, 653–676.
LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain. New York: Simon & Schuster.
LeDoux, J. E. (2002). The synaptic self. New York: Viking.
LeVay, S., & Hamer, D. H. (1994). Evidence for a biological influence in male homosexuality. Scientific American, 270, 44–49.
Levine, A. S., & Billington, C. J. (1997). Why do we eat? A neural systems approach. Annual Review of Nutrition, 17, 597–619.
Levine, A. S., & Billington, C. J. (2004). Opioids as agents of reward-related feeding: A consideration of the evidence. Physiology and Behavior, 82, 57–61.
Levine, A. S., Kotz, C. M., & Gosnell, B. A. (2003). Sugars and fats: The neurobiology of preference. Journal of Nutrition, 133, 831S–834S.
Lieberman, M. D. (2003). Reflective and reflexive judgment processes: A social cognitive neuroscience approach. In J. P. Forgas, K. R. Williams, & W. v. Hippel (Eds.), Social judgments: Implicit and explicit processes (pp. 44–67). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Lieberman, M. D., Eisenberger, N. I., Crockett, M. J., Tom, S. M., Pfeifer, J. H., & Way, B. M. (2007). Putting feelings into words: Affect labeling disrupts amygdala activity in response to affective stimuli. Psychological Science, 18, 421–428.
Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain. And introduction to neuropsychology. New York: Basic Books.
Luria, A. R., & Homskaya, E. D. (1964). Disturbances in the regulative role of speech with frontal lobe lesions. In J. M. Akert & K. Warren (Eds.), The frontal granular cortex and behavior (pp. 353–371). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Mann, P. E., & Bridges, R. S. (2001). Lactogenic hormone regulation of maternal behavior. Progress in Brain Research, 133, 251–262.
Martinez, J. A. (2000). Body-weight regulation: Causes of obesity. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 59, 337–345.
Matsumoto, M., & Hikosaka, O. (2009). Two types of dopamine neuron distinctly convey positive and negative motivational signals. Nature, 459, 837–841.
Matsuzawa, T. (2003). The Ai project: Historical and ecological contexts. Animal Cognition, 6, 199–211.
Matthews, G., & Gilliland, K. (1999). The personality theories of H. J. Eysenck and J. A. Gray: A comparative review. Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 583–626.
Mazur, A. (1985). A biosocial model of status in face-to-face primate groups. Social Forces, 64, 377–402.
Mazur, A., & Booth, A. (1998). Testosterone and dominance in men. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 353–397.
McClelland, D. C. (1987). Human motivation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Morris, J. S., Öhman, A., & Dolan, R. J. (1998). Conscious and unconscious emotional learning in the human amygdala. Nature, 393, 467–470.
Mowrer, O. H. (1960). Learning theory and behavior. New York: Wiley.
Murray, E. A. (2007). The amygdala, reward and emotion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 489–497.
Nelson, E. E., & Panksepp, J. (1998). Brain substrates of infant-mother attachment: Contributions of opioids, oxytocin, and norepinephrine. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 22, 437–452.
Nelson, R. J. (2011). An introduction to behavioral endocrinology (4th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.
O’Doherty, J., Kringelbach, M. L., Rolls, E. T., Hornak, J., & Andrews, C. (2001). Abstract reward and punishment representations in the human orbitofrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 95–102.
O’Doherty, J., Rolls, E. T., Francis, S., Bowtell, R., & McGlone, F. (2001). Representation of pleasant and aversive taste in the human brain. Journal of Neurophysiology, 85, 1315–1321.
Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2002). Rethinking feelings: An FMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 1215–1229.
Oyegbile, T. O., & Marler, C. A. (2005). Winning fights elevates testosterone levels in California mice and enhances future ability to win fights. Hormones and Behavior, 48, 259–267.
Packard, M. G., Cornell, A. H., & Alexander, G. M. (1997). Rewarding affective properties of intra-nucleus accumbens injections of testosterone. Behavioral Neuroscience, 111, 219–224.
Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. New York: Oxford University Press.
Panksepp, J. (2006). Emotional endophenotypes in evolutionary psychiatry. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 30, 774–784.
Panksepp, J., & Biven, L. (2012). The archaeology of mind. Neuroevolutionary origins of human emotions. New York: Norton.
Pfaus, J. G., Damsma, G., Wenkstern, D., & Fibiger, H. C. (1995). Sexual activity increases dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens and striatum of female rats. Brain Research, 693, 21–30.
Porter, R. H. (1998). Olfaction and human kin recognition. Genetica, 104, 259–263.
Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory (pp. 64–99). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Robinson, S., Rainwater, A. J., Hnasko, T. S., & Palmiter, R. D. (2007). Viral restoration of dopamine signaling to the dorsal striatum restores instrumental conditioning to dopamine-deficient mice. Psychopharmacology, 191, 567–578.
Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (2000). The psychology and neurobiology of addiction: An incentive– sensitization view. Addiction, 95(Suppl 2), S91–117.
Rolls, E. T. (1999). The brain and emotion. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Rolls, E. T. (2000). The orbitofrontal cortex and reward. Cerebral Cortex, 10, 284–294.
Rolls, E. T. (2004). The functions of the orbitofrontal cortex. Brain and Cognition, 55, 11–29.
Rolls, E. T. (2005a). Emotion explained. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Rolls, E. T. (2005b). Taste, olfactory, and food texture processing in the brain, and the control of food intake. Physiology and Behavior, 85, 45–56.
Roney, J. R., Lukaszewski, A. W., & Simmons, Z. L. (2007). Rapid endocrine responses of young men to social interactions with young women. Hormones and Behavior, 52, 326–333.
Sapolsky, R. M. (1987). Stress, social status, and reproductive physiology in free-living baboons. In D. Crews (Ed.), Psychobiology and reproductive behavior: An evolutionary perspective (pp. 291–322). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Schneirla, T. C. (1959). An evolutionary and developmental theory of biphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawal. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. Bd. 7, pp. 1–42). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
Schultheiss, O. C. (2007). A biobehavioral model of implicit power motivation arousal, reward and frustration. In E. Harmon-Jones & P. Winkielman (Eds.), Social neuroscience: Integrating biological and psychological explanations of social behavior (pp. 176–196). New York: Guilford.
Schultheiss, O. C. (2008). Implicit motives. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 603–633). New York: Guilford.
Schultheiss, O. C. (2013). The hormonal correlates of implicit motives. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 52–65.
Schultheiss, O. C., & Brunstein, J. C. (2001). Assessing implicit motives with a research version of the TAT: Picture profiles, gender differences, and relations to other personality measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 77, 71–86.
Schultheiss, O. C., & Köllner, M. (2014). Implicit motives and the development of competencies: A virtuous-circle model of motive-driven learning. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 73–95). New York: Taylor & Francis/Routledge.
Schultheiss, O. C., Pang, J. S., Torges, C. M., Wirth, M. M., & Treynor, W. (2005). Perceived facial expressions of emotion as motivational incentives: Evidence from a differential implicit learning paradigm. Emotion, 5, 41–54.
Schultheiss, O. C., Wirth, M. M., Torges, C. M., Pang, J. S., Villacorta, M. A., & Welsh, K. M. (2005). Effects of implicit power motivation on men’s and women’s implicit learning and testosterone changes after social victory or defeat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 174–188.
Schultheiss, O. C., Wirth, M. M., Waugh, C. E., Stanton, S. J., Meier, E., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2008). Exploring the motivational brain: Effects of implicit power motivation on brain activation in response to facial expressions of emotion. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 3, 333–343.
Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 275, 1593–1599.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1970). On the generality of the laws of learning. Psychological Review, 77, 406–428.
Solomon, R. L., & Wynne, L. C. (1953). Traumatic avoidance learning: Acquisition in normal dogs. Psychological Monographs, 67.
Squire, L. R., & Zola, S. M. (1996). Structure and function of declarative and nondeclarative memory systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93, 13515–13522.
Stanton, S. J., Beehner, J. C., Saini, E. K., Kuhn, C. M., & Labar, K. S. (2009). Dominance, politics, and physiology: Voters’ testosterone changes on the night of the 2008 United States presidential election. PloS One, 4, e7543.
Stanton, S. J., & Schultheiss, O. C. (2009). The hormonal correlates of implicit power motivation. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 942–949.
Stricker, E. M., & Verbalis, J. G. (2002). Hormones and ingestive behaviors. In J. B. Becker, S. M. Breedlove, & D. Crews (Eds.), Behavioral endocrinology (2nd ed., pp. 451–473). Cambridge MA: MIT.
Stutz, A. M., Morrison, C. D., & Argyropoulos, G. (2005). The Agouti-related protein and its role in energy homeostasis. Peptides, 26, 1771–1781.
Sullivan, R. M., Wilson, D. A., Wong, R., Correa, A., & Leon, M. (1990). Modified behavioral and olfactory bulb responses to maternal odors in preweanling rats. Brain Research. Developmental Brain Research, 53, 243–247.
Swithers, S. E., & Martinson, F. A. (1998). Habituation of oral responding in adult rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 112, 213–224.
Taira, K., & Rolls, E. T. (1996). Receiving grooming as a reinforcer for the monkey. Physiology and Behavior, 59, 1189–1192.
Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A., & Updegraff, J. A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 107, 411–429.
Thorndike, E. L. (1927). The law of effect. The American Journal of Psychology, 39, 212–222.
Toates, F. (1986). Motivational systems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Tucker, D. M., & Williamson, P. A. (1984). Asymmetric neural control systems in human self-regulation. Psychological Review, 91, 185–215.
Uvnäs-Moberg, K. (1998). Oxytocin may mediate the benefits of positive social interaction and emotions. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 819–835.
van der Westhuizen, D., & Solms, M. (2015). Basic emotional foundations of social dominance in relation to Panksepp’s affective taxonomy. Neuropsychoanalysis, 17, 19–37.
Vuilleumier, P., Richardson, M. P., Armony, J. L., Driver, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2004). Distant influences of amygdala lesion on visual cortical activation during emotional face processing. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 1271–1278. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1341
Wallen, K. (2001). Sex and context: Hormones and primate sexual motivation. Hormones and Behavior, 40, 339–357.
Wassum, K. M., & Izquierdo, A. (2015). The basolateral amygdala in reward learning and addiction. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 57, 271–283.
Westergaard, G. C., Suomi, S. J., Higley, J. D., & Mehlman, P. T. (1999). CSF 5–HIAA and aggression in female macaque monkeys: Species and interindividual differences. Psychopharmacology, 146, 440–446.
Wiemers, U. S., Schultheiss, O. C., & Wolf, O. T. (2015). Public speaking in front of an unreceptive audience increases implicit power motivation and its endocrine arousal signature. Hormones and Behavior, 71, 69–74.
Wilson, E. O. (1980). Sociobiology: The abridged edition. Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard.
Wingfield, J. C., Hegner, R. E., Dufty, A. M., & Ball, G. F. (1990). The “Challenge Hypothesis”: Theoretical implications for patterns of testosterone secretion, mating systems, and breeding strategies. The American Naturalist, 136, 829–846.
Winslow, J. T., & Insel, T. R. (2002). The social deficits of the oxytocin knockout mouse. Neuropeptides, 36, 221–229.
Wirth, M. M., Welsh, K. M., & Schultheiss, O. C. (2006). Salivary cortisol changes in humans after winning or losing a dominance contest depend on implicit power motivation. Hormones and Behavior, 49, 346–352.
Woodson, J. C. (2002). Including ‘learned sexuality’ in the organization of sexual behavior. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 26, 69–80.
Wynne-Edwards, K. E. (2001). Hormonal changes in mammalian fathers. Hormones and Behavior, 40, 139–145.
Yamaguchi, S., & Ninomiya, K. (2000). Umami and food palatability. Journal of Nutrition, 130, 921S–926S.
Young, L. J., & Insel, T. R. (2002). Hormones and parental behavior. In J. B. Becker, S. M. Breedlove, D. Crews, & M. M. McCarthy (Eds.), Behavioral endocrinology (2nd ed., pp. 331–369). Cambridge, MA: MIT.
Zak, P. J., Kurzban, R., & Matzner, W. T. (2005). Oxytocin is associated with human trustworthiness. Hormones and Behavior, 48, 522–527.
Zehr, J. L., Maestripieri, D., & Wallen, K. (1998). Estradiol increases female sexual initiation independent of male responsiveness in rhesus monkeys. Hormones and Behavior, 33, 95–103.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Schultheiss, O.C., Wirth, M.M. (2018). Biopsychological Aspects of Motivation. In: Heckhausen, J., Heckhausen, H. (eds) Motivation and Action . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-65093-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-65094-4
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)