Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Visibility and the Workplace Experiences of Trans Persons in the United States

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations

Abstract

According to Weeks (Theory, Culture and Society 15(35):1–19, 1998), sexual citizenship encompasses enfranchisement, inclusion and belonging. However, lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans (LGBT) people are often explicitly or implicitly excluded from the world of work. These experiences are complicated since, if an LGBT person remains silent, other people may assume that he or she is not gay or trans (Rich, Powers of desire: The politics of sexuality. Monthly Review Press, 1983). This assumption permits some sexual minorities to push their identity underground in order to evade the negative consequences of visibility. Nevertheless, this closeting or minimizing of identity does not resolve LGBT mistreatment; forced invisibility constitutes both a cause and a symptom of inequality (Schacter, Vanderbilt Law Review 50:361–371, 1997). Drawing on Injustice at Every Turn: A Report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey, a recent, wide-ranging study of discrimination in the United States against trans men and women by Grant et al. (Injustice at every turn: A report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, 2011), this chapter asks if and how minority gender identity and its visibility or invisibility affects trans and gender nonconforming persons’ workplace treatment. It questions whether the interactions between trans persons’ identity and work are similar to or distinct from the experiences of LGB individuals with whom they are often categorized.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 229.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    The study and report by Grant et al. (2011) contains significant detail regarding employment discrimination and workplace mistreatment of trans and gender nonconforming persons. This chapter, however, concentrates on a subset of those data to facilitate a comparative discussion of the work experiences of trans persons and sexual orientation minorities along the axes of visibility of sexual orientation and gender identity. Persons interested in more detailed data on trans persons’ workplace treatment are directed to the report itself. The author was not an author of that study and report, although he has written extensively on LGBT issues.

References

  • Badgett, M. V. L. (1995). The wage effects of sexual orientation discrimination. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48(4), 726–738.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badgett, M. V. L. (1996). Employment and sexual orientation: Disclosure and discrimination in the workplace. In A. L. Ellis & E. D. B. Riggle (Eds.), Sexual identity on the job: Issues and services (pp. 29–52). Philadelphia: Hayworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Badgett, M. V. L. (2001). Money, myths and change: The economic lives of lesbians and gay men. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin v. Foxx (Secretary, Department of Transportation). (2015, July 15). 2015 WL 4397641 (EEOC).

    Google Scholar 

  • Biewen, J., & Siegel, R. (1997, October 21). Gay teacher files first amendment lawsuit in Utah. All Things Considered (NPR).

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumenfeld, W. J., & Raymond, D. (1993). Looking at gay and lesbian life. Boston: Beacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bond, S., Hollywood, E., & Colgan, F. (2009). Integration in the workplace: Emerging employment practice on age, sexual orientation and religion or belief. Manchester: Equality and Human Rights Commission.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouton, K. (2013, September 21). Quandary of hidden disabilities: Conceal or reveal? New York Times, Business Day. Accessed July 25, 2015, from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/22/business/quandary-of-hidden-disabilities-conceal-or-reveal.html?_r=0

  • Boylan, J. F. (2014, August 15). Trans community can change minds by changing discourse. Los Angeles Times. Accessed January 1, 2015, from http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-adv-boylan-transgender-language-20140817-story.html

  • Brewer, D. J., & Gray, M. J. (1999a). Report on sexual orientation fairness in California Courts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, D. J., & Gray, M. J. (1999b). Survey data, preliminary report Draft 3/31/99. Reported in 4/9/99 materials of the Subcommittee on Sexual Orientation Fairness. p 21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brower, T. (1997). “A stranger to its laws:” Homosexuality, schemas, and the lessons and limits of reasoning by analogy. Santa Clara Law Review, 38, 65–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brower, T. (2003). Report on the survey of the Lord Chancellor’s Department, rainbow network: Sexual orientation fairness in the courts of England and Wales. UK: The Lord Chancellor’s Department.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brower, T. (2005). Report on the 2005 survey of the Department for Constitutional Affairs, Rainbow Network: Sexual orientation fairness in the courts of England and Wales. UK: The Department for Constitutional Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brower, T. (2009). Social cognition “at work”: Schema theory and lesbian and gay identity in title VII. Journal of Law and Sexuality, 18, 1–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brower, T. (2011). Twelve angry—And sometimes alienated—Men: The experiences and treatment of lesbians and gay men during jury service. Drake Law Review, 59, 669–706.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brower, T. (2015). Courts as workplaces for sexual orientation minorities. In F. Colgan & N. Rumens (Eds.), Sexual orientation at work (pp. 58–72). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. (2013). American time use study. Accessed July 25, 2015, from http://www.bls.gov/tus/charts/

  • California Judicial Council—Access and Fairness Committee. (2001). Sexual orientation fairness in the California courts. San Francisco: Administrative Office of the Courts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carbado, D. W., & Gulati, M. (2000). Working identity. Cornell Law Review, 85, 1259–1308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, B. (2012). Stonewall workplace guides: Bisexual people in the work-place: Practical advice for employers. STONEWALL, pp 2–3. Accessed July 25, 2015, from http://www.stonewall.org.uk/documents/bisexual_people.pdf, archived at http://perma.cc/E3KA-ZUTP

  • Croteau, J. M. (1996). Research on the work experiences of lesbian, gay and bisexual people: An integrative review of methodology and findings. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 195–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, D. (2000, June 7). A heartbreaking decision. Salon.com. Accessed January 1, 2015, from http://www.salonmagazine.com/news/feature/2000/06/07/relationships/print.html

  • Dawson v. Bumble & Bumble, 398 F.3d 211 (2nd Cir. 2005).

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, N. E., & Schoenrade, P. (2000). The relationship among reported disclosure of sexual orientation, anti-discrimination policies, top management support and work attitudes of gay and lesbian employees. Personnel Review, 29, 346–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Debate over grade school teacher divulging he’s gay. (2000, June 11). S.F. Examiner, A-3

    Google Scholar 

  • Eliason, M. (1996). Identity formation for lesbian, bisexual, and gay persons. Journal of Homosexuality, 30(3), 31–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Escoffier, J. (1975). Stigmas, work environment, and economic discrimination against homosexuals. Homosexual Counseling Journal, 2, 8–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eskridge, W., Jr. (1997). A jurisprudence of ‘coming out’: Religion, homosexuality, and collisions of liberty and equality in American Public Law. Yale Law Journal, 106, 2411–2443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federal Glass Ceiling Commission. (1995). Report. Washington, DC: Federal Glass Ceiling Commisssion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, J. (2004). Gay glass ceilings (Discussion Papers Series 2004–20). London: Royal Holloway, University of London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friskopp, A., & Silverstein, S. (1996). Straight jobs, gay lives: Gay and lesbian professionals, the Harvard Business School, and the American workplace. New York, NY: Simon & Shuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallup. (2015). Gay and lesbian rights gallup historical trends. Accessed July 25, 2015, from http://www.gallup.com/poll/1651/gay-lesbian-rights.aspx

  • Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, J. M., Mottet, L. A., Tanis, J., Harrison, J., Herman, J. L., & Keisling, M. (2011). Injustice at every turn: A report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, T. K. (2003). Discrimination in workplace dynamics: Toward a structured account of disparate treatment theory. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 38, 91–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith, K. H., & Hebl, M. R. (2002). The disclosure dilemma for gay men and lesbians: ‘Coming out’ at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(6), 1191–1199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halley, J. E. (1989). The politics of the closet: Towards equal protection for gay, lesbian, and bisexual identity. University of California Los Angeles Law Review, 36, 915–976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, A., & Bartlow, S. (2015). Intersectionality: Race, gender, sexuality and class. In J. DeLameter & R. F. Plante (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of sexualities. Handbooks of sociology and social research (pp. 261–271). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hennepin County Bar Association Lesbian and Gay Issues Subcommittee. (1995). Legal employers’ barriers to advancement and to economic equality based on sexual orientation. Minneapolis, MN: Hennepin County Bar Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. P. (1996). “Some of my best friends”: Intergroup contact, concealable stigma, and heterosexuals’ attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 412–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, J. (2006, August 8). Attracting gay MBAs. BusinessWeek Online. Accessed January 8, 2015, from http://archive.is/YqjTs

  • Holvino, E. (2010). Intersections: The simultaneity of race, gender and class in organization studies. Gender, Work and Organization, 17(3), 248–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson, D. L. (1997). Out yet unseen: A racial critique of gay and lesbian legal theory and political discourse. Connecticut Law Review, 29, 561–645.

    Google Scholar 

  • John Paul II. (1981, September 14). Laborem exercens (on human work). Encyclical Letter. Accessed January 8, 2015, from http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_14091981_laborem-exercens_en.html

  • Kantor, R. M. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. New York, NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, E. A. (2006, July 12). The roots of racial pride. Los Angeles Times, Part B, p 13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karst, K. L. (1995). Myths of identity: Individual and group portraits of race and sexual orientation. University of California Los Angeles Law Review, 43, 263–287.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuper, L., Nussbaum, R., & Mustanski, B. (2012). Exploring the diversity of gender and sexual orientation identities in an online sample of transgender individuals. The Journal of Sex Research, 49(2–3), 244–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambda Legal. (2015). Know your rights. Accessed July 25, 2015, from http://www.lambdalegal.org/know-your-rights/workplace/laws-that-protect-you

  • Los Angeles County Bar Association Committee on Sexual Orientation Bias. (1994). Report. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Bar Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, K. (2015, April 24). Bruce Jenner to anyone who thinks otherwise: ‘This is not a publicity stunt’. Deadline Hollywood. Accessed 25 July 25, 2015, from http://deadline.com/2015/04/bruce-jenner-to-anyone-who-thinks-otherwise-this-is-not-a-publicity-stunt-1201416238/

  • Macy v. Dep’t of Justice, (2012, April 20). 2012 Westlaw 1435995.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNish, J. (2006, June 14). Can lawyers be too gay? Globe and Mail (Toronto). Accessed January 8, 2015, from http://www.globeinvestor.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20060614.wxlawcolumn14/GIStory/

  • Meyer, I. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohr, R. (1988). Gays/justice: A study of ethics, society and law. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, D. W. (1993). Public polarized on gay issue. Gallup Poll Monthly, 331, 31–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moran, L. J. (2006). Judicial diversity and the challenge of sexuality: Some preliminary findings. Sydney Law Review, 28, 565–598.

    Google Scholar 

  • NALP. (2013, January). LGBT representation up in 2012. NALP Bulletin. Accessed July 25, 2015, from http://www.nalp.org/lgbt_representation_up_in_2012

  • New Jersey Supreme Court. (2001). Final report of the task force on sexual orientation issues. Trenton: New Jersey Supreme Court.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center. (2015, June 8). Support for same-sex marriage at record high, but key segments remain opposed. Accessed July 25, 2015, from http://www.people-press.org/files/2015/06/6-8-15-Same-sex-marriage-release1.pdf

  • Ragins, B. R. (2008). Disclosure disconnects: Antecedents and consequences of disclosing invisible stigmas across life domains. Academy of Management Review, 33(1), 194–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R., & Cornwell, J. M. (2001). Pink triangles: Antecedents and consequences of perceived workplace discrimination against gay and lesbian employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1244–1261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R., Cornwell, J. M., & Miller, J. S. (2003). Heterosexism in the workplace: Do race and gender matter? Group and Organization Management, 28(1), 45–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R., Singh, R., & Cornwell, J. M. (2007). Making the invisible visible: Fear and disclosure of sexual orientation at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(4), 1103–1118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rene v, MGM Grand Hotel, Inc., 305 F.3d 1061 (9th Cir. 2002) (en banc).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rich, A. (1983). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence. In A. Snitow, C. Stansell, & S. Thompson (Eds.), Powers of desire: The politics of sexuality (pp. 177–205). New York, NY: Monthly Review Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rouner, J. (2014, August 27). Bathroom battles: Scaremongering abounds about transgender bathroom usage. Houston Press, Blogs. Accessed January 8, 2015, from http://blogs.houstonpress.com/news/2014/08/bathroom_battles_scaremongering_abounds_about_transgender_public_restroom_choice.php?page=3

  • Savin-Williams, R. (1989). Coming out to parents and self-esteem among gay and lesbian youths. Journal of Homosexuality, 18(1–2), 1–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schacter, J. S. (1997). Romer v. Evans and democracy’s domain. Vanderbilt Law Review, 50, 361–371.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, B. E. (1986). Coming out at work: Bridging the private/public gap. Work and Occupations, 13(4), 463–487.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skipworth, S. A., Garner, A., & Dettrey, B. J. (2010). Limitations of the contact hypothesis: Heterogeneity in the contact effect on attitudes toward gay rights. Politics and Policy, 38, 887–906.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tweedy, A. E., & Yescavage, K. (2015). Employment discrimination against bisexuals: An empirical study. William and Mary Journal of Women and Law, 21(3), 699–741.

    Google Scholar 

  • Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weeks, J. (1998). The sexual citizen. Theory, Culture and Society, 15(35), 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woods, J. D., & Lucas, J. (1993). The corporate closet: The professional lives of gay men in America. New York, NY: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoshino, K. (2006). Covering: The hidden assault on our civil rights. New York, NY: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Western State College of Law, Fullerton, CA, USA

    Todd Brower

Authors
  1. Todd Brower
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Todd Brower .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept of Mgmt, Vienna Univ of Economics & Business, Vienna, Austria

    Thomas Köllen

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Brower, T. (2016). Visibility and the Workplace Experiences of Trans Persons in the United States. In: Köllen, T. (eds) Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29623-4_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation