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Chinese Space Legislation: Current Situation and Possible Way Forward

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Private Law, Public Law, Metalaw and Public Policy in Space

Part of the book series: Space Regulations Library ((SPRL,volume 8))

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Abstract

In the last decade China has achieved a remarkable level of success in the space sector and has rapidly become one of the most dynamic and innovative space players. Indeed, not only is China at the forefront of space exploration and utilization but it is also capable of providing a number of space services on a commercial basis, including launching and satellite navigation and positioning.

While rapidly expanding the range and ambition of its space endeavors China appears to lack the same level of dynamism and flexibility in the legal organization and implementation of its national space activities. Opposite to a growing worldwide trend, which has seen emerging space actors enacting dedicated national space legislation, China does not have a comprehensive, fully fledged national space law. Instead, Chinese space activities are run through a number of internal management rules and departmental regulations issued by space authorities. This situation, which might be explained by taking into account historical factors and the nature of Chinese space activities and players, has the potential to negatively affect Chinese economic and organizational interests in the space field.

The purpose of the present chapter is to analyze the current legal framework regulating Chinese space activities, to review its positive features and shortcomings, and to discuss a possible way forward.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Tiangong-1 is the first operational component of the Tiangong program, which aims to place a larger, modular station into orbit by 2023. Tiangong-1 was visited by a series of Shenzhou spacecraft missions, including two manned missions in June 2012 and June 2013. The Tiangong program foresees the launch of the Tiangong-2 space laboratory in 2015, with an experimental core space station module around 2018. The ultimate aim is to build a 60-ton multi-module space station by 2020. For more information on the Tiangong program see at http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/09/china-major-human-space-flight-milestone-tiangong-1s-launch/ (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  2. 2.

    For more information on the Beidou system see at http://en.beidou.gov.cn/ (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  3. 3.

    For an extensive analysis of these achievements see B. Harvey, China in space: the great leap forward, Springer (2013).

  4. 4.

    Yutu is an unmanned lunar rover that forms part of the Chinese Chang’e 3 mission to the Moon. Its main purposes are to study the material composition of the lunar soil and to demonstrate and develop technologies for future missions. The Chang’e lunar program foresees a sample return mission by 2017 and possibly a human mission by 2025–2030. For more information see/cf. Z. Sun, Y. Jia, H. Zhang, Technological advancements and promotion role of Chang’e-3 lunar probe mission, 56(11) Science China Technological Sciences 2702 (2013).

  5. 5.

    A discussion of space activities from a developing country’s perspective is provided by Y. Schmidt, International space law and developing countries, in C. Brünner, A. Soucek (eds.), Outer space in society, politics and law, Springer (2011), 690–726.

  6. 6.

    See/cf. H. Zhao, The status quo and future of Chinese space legislation, 58(1) ZLW 94 (2009); Y. Zhao, Regulation of space activities In the People’s Republic of China, in R. Jakhu (ed.), National regulation of space activities, Springer (2010), 247–265; J. Li, Progressing Towards New National Space Law: Current Legal Status and Recent Developments in Chinese Space Law and its Relevance to Pacific Rim Space Law and Activities, 35 J. Space L. 439 (2009).

  7. 7.

    See/Cf. Austria: Austrian Federal Law on the authorization of space activities and establishment of a national space registry (2011); France: Bill No. 2008-518 relating to spatial operations (2008); Japan: Basic Space Law - Law No.43 (2008); Netherlands: Rules concerning space activities and the establishment of registry of space objects – Space activities act (2006); Belgium: Law on the activities of launching, flight operations or guidance of space objects (2005).

  8. 8.

    For example, Indonesia, see at http://en.hukumonline.com/pages/lt51f27a6c7c90d/indonesia-s-new-space-law (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  9. 9.

    For an analysis of the Chinese space program from its infant stage to the first manned spaceflight in 2003 see B. Harvey, From conception to manned spaceflight, Springer (2004).

  10. 10.

    For example, in the early 1980’s significant improvements were made to the Chinese Long March Rocket series which constitutes the main series of space launch vehicles of the People’s Republic of China. These improvements enabled China to initiate a commercial launch program in 1985. On the evolution of the Chinese space program see H. Zhao, National Space Law in China, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers (2015).

  11. 11.

    Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (hereafter Outer Space Treaty), London/Moscow/Washington, done 27 January 1967, entered into force 10 October 1967; 610 UNTS 205; TIAS 6347; 18 UST 2410; UKTS 1968 No. 10; Cmnd. 3198; ATS 1967 No. 24; 6 ILM 386 (1967); Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (hereafter Rescue Agreement), London/Moscow/Washington, done 22 April 1968, entered into force 3 December 1968; 672 UNTS 119; TIAS 6599; 19 UST 7570; UKTS 1969 No. 56; Cmnd. 3786; ATS 1986 No. 8; 7 ILM 151 (1968); Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (hereafter Liability Convention), London/Moscow/Washington, done 29 March 1972, entered into force 1 September 1972; 961 UNTS 187; TIAS 7762; 24 UST 2389; UKTS 1974 No. 16; Cmnd. 5068; ATS 1975 No. 5; 10 ILM 965 (1971); Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (hereafter Registration Convention ), New York, done 14 January 1975, entered into force 15 September 1976; 1023 UNTS 15; TIAS 8480; 28 UST 695; UKTS 1978 No. 70; Cmnd. 6256; ATS 1986 No. 5; 14 ILM 43 (1975).

  12. 12.

    For an overview of the organization framework of Chinese Space Activities see H. Zhao, Status quo – footnote 6 at 99–100.

  13. 13.

    Pursuant to this decision the CNSA is responsible for: (a) signing governmental agreements in the space sector on behalf of the Chinese government; (b) organizing inter-governmental scientific and technical exchanges; (c) enforcing National space policies; (d) managing National space science, technology and industry. See at http://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n615709/n620681/n771918/index.html (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  14. 14.

    See at http://www.spacechina.com/n25/index.html (last accessed on 27 February 2015).

  15. 15.

    For more information see http://www.cgwic.com/About/ (last accessed on 27 February 2015).

  16. 16.

    Apart from the Outer Space Treaty, Rescue Agreement, Liability Convention and Registration Convention described above, the fifth UN space treaty is the: Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (hereafter Moon Agreement), New York, done 18 December 1979, entered into force 11 July 1984; 1363 UNTS 3; ATS 1986 No. 14; 18 ILM 1434 (1979).

  17. 17.

    Art. I, Outer Space Treaty.

  18. 18.

    Art. II, Outer Space Treaty.

  19. 19.

    Art. III, Outer Space Treaty.

  20. 20.

    Art. VI, Outer Space Treaty.

  21. 21.

    A detailed analysis of the provisions of the Liability Convention is provided for in A. Kerrest, Liability for damage caused by space activities, in M. Benkö/K.U. Schrogl (eds.), Space law: current problems and perspectives for future regulations, Eleven International Publishing 2005, pp. 91–112; A. Kerrest, L.J. Smith, F. Tronchetti, Liability Convention, in S. Hobe/B. Schmidt-Tedd/K.U. Schrogl (eds.), Cologne Commentary on Space Law, Vol. II, Carl Heymanns Verlag, 2013, pp. 83–226.

  22. 22.

    For a detailed analysis of the Rescue Agreement see F.G. von der Dunk, A sleeping beauty awakens: the 1968 Rescue Agreement after 40 years, 34 Journal of Space Law (2008), pp. 411–434; I. Marboe, J. Neumann, K.U. Schrogl, The Rescue and Return Agreement, in S. Hobe/B. Schmidt-Tedd/K.U. Schrogl (eds.), Cologne Commentary on Space Law, Vol. II, Carl Heymanns Verlag, 2013, pp. 9–82.

  23. 23.

    For a detailed analysis of the 1975 Registration Convention see N. Rodrigues, The United Nations register of objects launched into outer space, in S. Hobe/B. Schmidt-Tedd/K.U. Schrogl (eds.), Current issues in the registration of space objects, Proceedings of the Project 2001 Workshop, Cologne 2005, pp. 25 et seq.; B. Schmidt-Tedd/M. Gerhard, Registration of space objects: which are the advantages for States resulting from registration, in M. Benkö/K.U. Schrogl (eds.), Space law: current problems and perspectives for future regulations, Eleven International Publishing 2005, pp. 121–140; Schmidt-Tedd, U. Bohlmann, N. Malysheva, O. Stelmakh, L. Tennen, The Registration Convention , in S. Hobe/B. Schmidt-Tedd/K.U. Schrogl (eds.), Cologne Commentary on Space Law, Vol. II, Carl Heymanns Verlag 2013, pp. 232–324.

  24. 24.

    For an analysis of the Moon Agreement see F. Tronchetti, The exploitation of natural resources of the Moon and other celestial bodies: a legal proposal, Martinus Nijhoff/Brill (2009), 38–60, 225–230; S. Hobe, R. Jakhu, S. Freeland, F. Tronchetti, The Moon Agreement, in S. Hobe/B. Schmidt-Tedd/K.U. Schrogl (eds.), Cologne Commentary on Space Law, Vol. II, Carl Heymanns Verlag (2013); F.G. von der Dunk, The Moon Agreement and the prospect of commercial exploitation of lunar resources, XXXII Annals Air & Space L. 91, (2007).

  25. 25.

    This view is shared by the majority of scholars see, e.g. J. Hermida, Legal basis for a national space legislation (2004), 29; V. Kaiser, Commercial exploitation of space: domestic documents regulation, XVII Annals Air & Space L. (1992), 190; I. Marboe/F. Hafner, National authorization mechanisms in implementation of the UN treaties, in F.G. von der Dunk (ed.), National Space Legislation in Europe, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, Boston (2011), 32. Other authors, however, claim that the Outer Space Treaty requires states to adopt national space legislation. See, inter alia, M. Bourély, Quelques réflexions au sujet des legislations spatiales nationals, XVI Annals Air & Space L (1991), 247.

  26. 26.

    On the issue of national space legislation see generally F.G. von der Dunk (ed.), National Space Legislation in Europe, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, Boston (2011); R. S. Jakhu (ed.), National Regulation of Space Activities Springer, Dordrecht et al. (2010); Christian Brünner/Edith Walter (eds.), National Space Law. Development in Europe – Challenges for Small Countries, Böhlau, Vienna, Graz (2008); M. Gerhard/K.U. Schrogl, ‘Report of the ‘Project 2001’ Working Group on National Space Legislation’, in: Karl-Heinz. Böckstiegel (ed.), ‘Project 2001’ – Legal Framework for the Commercial Use of Outer Space (Carl Heymanns, Cologne et al., 2002) 529, 552–558.

  27. 27.

    The interpretation of the expression ‘national activities’ in outer space is debated in legal literature, see e.g. F.G. von der Dunk, The origin of authorization: Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty and international law, in F.G. von der Dunk (ed.), National Space Legislation in Europe, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, Boston (2011), 9–17; M. Gerhard, Article VI, in S. Hobe/B. Schmidt-Tedd/K.U. Schrogl (eds.), Cologne Commentary on Space Law, Vol. I, Carl Heymanns Verlag (2009), 109–111; H.A. Wassenbergh, Principles of outer space law in hindsight, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, (1991), 23.

  28. 28.

    See/Cf. I. Marboe/Hafner, supra footnote 25, at 31-2; Michael Gerhard/Kristina Moll, ‘The Gradual Change from “Building Blocks” to a Common shape of National Space Legislatio n in Europe – Summary of Findings and Conclusions’, in: Hobe/Bernhard Schmidt-Tedd/Kai-Uwe Schrogl (eds.), Project 2001 Plus – Towards a Harmonised Approach for National Space Legislation in Europe (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, Cologne, 2004), 7, 48–49; Revised text of the draft recommendations on national legislation relevant to the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, UNGA Doc. A/AC.105/C.2/L.289, 26 February, 2013; Resolution No. 6/2012 adopting the ‘Sofia Guidelines for a Model Law on National Space Legislation’ , adopted at the ILA Conference in Sofia, Bulgaria, in September 2012, available at http://www.ila-hq.org/en/committees/index.cfm/cid/29 (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  29. 29.

    M. Gerhard, supra footnote 27, at 120–22; J.F. Mayence, Granting access to outer space: rights and responsibilities for states and their citizens, in F.G. von der Dunk (ed.), National Space Legislation in Europe, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, Boston (2011), 81–88; Marboe/Hafner, supra footnote 25, at 30–32.

  30. 30.

    See/Cf. B.A. Hurwitz, State liability for outer space activities in accordance with the 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, Kluwer (1992), 22; Hermida, supra footnote 25, at 13.

  31. 31.

    For a description of the ‘commercialization’ of space activities see F. Tronchetti, Fundamentals of Space Law and Policy, Springer (2013); H. van-traa Engelman, Commercial utilization of outer space: law and practice, Springer (1993); F. Lyall/P. Larsen, Space law: a treatise, Ashgate Publishing (2009), 467–498; F. Lyall, The rationale, efficient and economic use of space: three suggestions, in M. Benkö (ed.), Air and Space Law in the twenty-first century: Liber Amicorum K.H. Böckstiegel, Carl Heymanns Verlag (2002), 386–395. It is important to point out that in the United States the expression ‘commercial’ is used with a different meaning, that is to refer to the involvement of private operator in a certain activity.

  32. 32.

    See/Cf. Y. Zhao, National space legislation with reference to China’s practice. XXXII Annals Air & Space L. 131 (2007).

  33. 33.

    See/Cf. Y. Zhun, Concise Chinese Law, Law Press, China (2003).

  34. 34.

    Legislation Law of the People’s Republic of China (Order of President No. 31).

  35. 35.

    See/Cf. Zhao – Regulation, supra footnote 6, at 247.

  36. 36.

    Ibid, at 247–49.

  37. 37.

    See/Cf. Zhao – Status quo, supra footnote 6, at 100.

  38. 38.

    These include, inter alia, the Agreement on Guidelines for the Transfer of Equipment and Technology Related to Missiles (MTCR Agreement), done 16 April 1987; 26 ILM 599 (1987), the Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies, and the Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (ICOC), established on 25 November 2002.

  39. 39.

    Order No. 6 of the Commission of Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 8 February 2001.

  40. 40.

    Order No. 12 of the Commission of Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense of the People’s Republic of China, 21 November 2002.

  41. 41.

    Art. 2, Registration Measures.

  42. 42.

    Art. 3, Registration Measures.

  43. 43.

    Art. 4, Registration Measures.

  44. 44.

    Art. 5, para. 1, Registration Measures.

  45. 45.

    Art. 5, para. 2, Registration Measures.

  46. 46.

    Art. 6, Registration Measures.

  47. 47.

    According to Art. 4, para. 1, of the Registration Convention each state of registry shall furnish the Secretary-General of the United Nations the following information: (a) name of the launching state or states; (b) an appropriate designator of the space object or its registration number; (c) date and territory or location of launch; and (d) basic orbital parameters, including: (i) nodal period; (ii) inclination; (iii) apogee; (iv) perigee; (v) general function of the space object.

  48. 48.

    Art. 8, Registration Measures.

  49. 49.

    Art. 10, Registration Measures.

  50. 50.

    Art. 12, Registration Measures.

  51. 51.

    On the practice of transfer objects in orbit see e.g. M. Chatzipanagiotis, Registration of space objects and transfer of ownership in orbit 56(2) ZLW (2007); Gerhard, supra footnote 26, at 124–5.

  52. 52.

    Art. 1, Licensing Measures.

  53. 53.

    Art. 2, Licensing Measures.

  54. 54.

    Art. 3, Licensing Measures.

  55. 55.

    Art. 4, Licensing Measures.

  56. 56.

    Art. 5, Licensing Measures.

  57. 57.

    Art. 6, Licensing Measures.

  58. 58.

    Art. 6, Licensing Measures.

  59. 59.

    Art. 2, Licensing Procedures.

  60. 60.

    Art. 8, Licensing Measures.

  61. 61.

    Art. 12, Licensing Measures.

  62. 62.

    Art. 11, Licensing Measures.

  63. 63.

    Art. 13, Licensing Measures.

  64. 64.

    Art. 14, Licensing Measures.

  65. 65.

    Art. 19, Licensing Measures.

  66. 66.

    Art. 16, Licensing Measures.

  67. 67.

    Art. 24, Licensing Measures.

  68. 68.

    Art. 25, Licensing Measures.

  69. 69.

    See/Cf. Technical Report on space debris, United Nations General Assembly. Technical report of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee on space debris. UN Doc. A/AC.105/720, 1999.

  70. 70.

    On the issue of space debris see e.g. J. N. Pelton, Orbital Debris and Other Space Threats, Springer Press (2013); N. Jasentuliyana, Space debris and international law, 26 J. Space L. 139 (1998); A. Brearly, Reflections upon the notion of Liability: The instances of Kosmos 954 and Space Debris, 34 J. Space L. 291 (2008).

  71. 71.

    Art. 1, Space Debris Interim Instrument.

  72. 72.

    Article 3.1 of the IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines defines space debris as “Space debris are all man-made objects including fragments and elements thereof, in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere, that are non functional”. See at http://iadc-online.org/index.cgi?item=docs_pub (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  73. 73.

    Art. 4, Space Debris Interim Instrument.

  74. 74.

    For more information on the events of January 2007 see at http://www.space.com/19137-china-anti-satellite-launch-test.html (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  75. 75.

    See at http://www.cgwic.com/LaunchServices/LaunchVehicle/LM2C.html (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  76. 76.

    China has launched satellites for foreign customers, including NigcomSat (Nigeria), the Venezuelan Ministry of Technology and Science, the Turkish Ministry of Defense, and the Indonesian Space Agency. Furthermore, on 22 November 2013, China Great Wall Industry Corporation signed a satellite procurement contract with APT Satellite Company Limited, a Hong Kong based satellite operator, for the APSTAR-9 Satellite Program. See at http://www.cgwic.com/In-OrbitDelivery/Customer/index.html (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  77. 77.

    See at www.spacetoday.org/China/ChinaSatellites.html (last accessed January 16, 2014); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaogan (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  78. 78.

    See Zhao –Status quo, supra footnote 6, at 121.

  79. 79.

    See at http://www.cgwic.com/LaunchServices/index.html (last accessed January 16, 2014); http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/china/launch-intro.htm (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  80. 80.

    For an overview of the system of intellectual property rights protection in China see G.C.K. Cheung, Intellectual property rights in China, Routledge (2009). See also “Intellectual Property Protection in China”, Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the United Nations Office at Geneva and Other International Organization in Switzerland, available at http://www.china-un.ch/eng/bjzl/t176937.htm; “Protecting your intellectual property in China”, available at http://mac.doc.gov/China/Docs/businessguides/IntellectualPropertyRights.htm (last accessed January 16, 2014). Additionally, see Zhao – Regulation, supra footnote 6, at 262–4.

  81. 81.

    For example, the Regulation on Control of Military Products Export, first released in 1997 and revised in 2002; Regulations on Export Control of Missiles and Missile-related Items and Technologies.

  82. 82.

    See/Cf. C. Venet, The economic dimension, in C. Brünner/A. Soucek, Outer space in society, politics and law, Springer (2011), 55–72; E. Walter, The privatization and commercialization of outer space, in C. Brünner/A. Soucek, Outer space in society, politics and law, Springer (2011), 493–518; The Space Report 2012, available at http://www.spacefoundation.org/media/press-releases/space-foundations-2012-report-reveals-122-percent-global-space-industry-growth (last accessed January 16, 2014).

  83. 83.

    A. Ito, Legal aspects of satellite remote sensing, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2011; L. J. Smith and C. Doldrina, Remote Sensing Data: Some Critical Comments on the Current State of Regulation and Reflection on reform, Proceedings of the Forty-Ninth Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space (2007), 253; R. Harris and R. Browning, Data policy assessment for GMES final report, EVK2-CT-2002-80012-DPAG, University of London, 2004.

  84. 84.

    L. Yang, Remote Sensing Data Distribution and Application in the Environmental Protection, Disaster Prevention, and Urban Planning in China, 36(2) J. Space L. 435 (2010).

  85. 85.

    See/Cf. Zhao, Regulation, supra footnote 6, at 253–55.

  86. 86.

    Ibid.

  87. 87.

    The 2011 China’s Space Activities White Paper of 2011, Section IV – Development Policies and Measures: states as follows: “The Chinese Government intends to…Strengthening legislative work. To actively carry out research on a national space law, gradually formulate and improve related laws, regulations and space industrial policies guiding and regulating space activities, and create a legislative environment favorable to the development of space activities”. See also at http://www.space.com/14076-china-unveils-space-mission-plans-2016.html (last accessed January 16, 2014). The text of the 2011 White Paper is available at http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2011-12/29/c_131332974.htm (last accessed January 16, 2014).

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  1. HowlyMo Law Firm, Beijing, China

    Fabio Tronchetti

  2. School of Law, University of Mississippi, Mississippi, USA

    Fabio Tronchetti

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  1. Attorney at Law, Sterns and Tennen, International Institute of Space Law, Phoenix, Arizona, USA

    Patricia Margaret Sterns

  2. Former Commissioner, Arizona Space Commi, International Academy of Astronautics, Phoenix, Arizona, USA

    Leslie I. Tennen

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Tronchetti, F. (2016). Chinese Space Legislation: Current Situation and Possible Way Forward. In: Sterns, P., Tennen, L. (eds) Private Law, Public Law, Metalaw and Public Policy in Space. Space Regulations Library, vol 8. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27087-6_5

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