Abstract
Podcasting has entered its second decade. Yet when we ‘press play,’ how is learning activated? How are new spaces created? This chapter enters a sonic space, showing the value of digital sounds and podcasting to teaching and learning.
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Notes
- 1.
Attali [2], pp. 7–9.
- 2.
John Cage stated that, “in the past, the point of disagreement has been between dissonance and consonance, it will be, in the immediate future, between noise and so-called musical sounds,” from Silence: 50th Anniversary Edition, (London: Marion Boyars, 2011), p. 4.
- 3.
Klaus Bruhn Jensen stated that, “sound studies have no natural home in the academy,” from “Sounding the media ,” Nordicom Review, Vol. 27, 2006, p. 8.
- 4.
The subtitles and sections of this chapter are intentional: pause, play and record. While teachers and students gain enormously through listening to the podcasts created by others, there is also profound value in recording content. This may be enfolded into student-centred learning, but it is also part of creative-led research, aligning a sonic artefact and exegesis. As one fine example of this movement from ‘pressing play’ and ‘pressing record,’ please refer to Forbes [3].
- 5.
J. Cage in Haskins [4], p. 147.
- 6.
The best way to experience 4′33″ is live. As part of the BBC Proms, it was performed. The riveting nature of this performance is clearly exhibited. Please view “John Cage 4′33″” YouTube, October 1, 2010, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zY7UK-6aaNA.
- 7.
John Cage described, “Percussion music is a contemporary transition from keyboard-influenced music to the all-sound music of the future,” from Silence: 50th Anniversary Edition, (London: Marion Boyars, 2011), p. 5.
- 8.
Similarly, Carter [5], stated that “Active listening is not simply psychological jargon. In the context of ‘hearing cultures,’ it conjures up historical, cultural, or social situations in which listening surfaces as a device for creating new symbols and word senses,” p. 45.
- 9.
Blesser and Salter [6], p. 12.
- 10.
Sonic art can have a role in subverting and agitating this repetition familiarity. Please refer to Kim-Cohen [7].
- 11.
Nancy [8], p. 6.
- 12.
Bull and Back [9], p. 3.
- 13.
Szendy [10], p. 142.
- 14.
This argument is fully developed in my book Digital Dieting, (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2013).
- 15.
Carpenter and McLu han stated that, “auditory space has no point of favoured focus. It’s a sphere without fixed boundaries, space made by the thing itself, not space containing the thing. It is not pictorial space, boxed in, but dynamic, always in flux, creating its own dimensions moment by moment … We can shut out the visual field by closing our eyes, but we are always triggered to respond to sound,” from Carpenter and McLuhan [11], p. 67.
- 16.
Osbo rne [12].
- 17.
Pearcy [13].
- 18.
The reason why sonic media creates this interpretative space is because of the gap between signifier (form) and signified (content). Printed signifiers such as the word “truth” offer a limited array of signifieds, particularly within formal education. While images offer an array of interpretative opportunities, the anchorage of the written word through such functions as captions to photographs, restrict the available meaning systems. However sound – along with smell, taste and touch – are senses that provide more ambiguous information to decode. The plurality of signifieds that emerge from such signifiers may not be useful in particular information systems, where definitive interpretations are required. However, if the goal is to encourage thought, questioning and critique, then receivers of sensory input that encourages ambiguity must work harder to connect signifiers and signified and build meaning.
- 19.
C oles [14], p. 21.
- 20.
This tendency is sometimes termed the independent podcast movement. This differentiation is necessary, as ‘born podcast’ materials are distinct from the repurposed commercial and public radio that uses podcasting subscriptions as a secondary dissemination model. For a discussion of this independent movement, please refer to Markman and Sawyer [15].
- 21.
Ala-Fossi et al. [16].
- 22.
While outside the scope of this chapter, it is important to recognise that – within education – the bulk of research has focused on podcasts in universities rather than schools. The reason for this emphasis is unclear. It is unknown if there is more podcasting in universities in comparison to schools, or simply it is studied more frequently and therefore (over)represented in the literature. A key corrective study has been conducted by Jonathan Amicone and Lan Li. Refer to their study, “Podcasting use in a junior high social studies class: a research study of impact on podcasting on student performance,” Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference, March 17, 2014, http://www.editlib.org/p/130868. They created a study in the eighth grade Junior High Social Studies classroom. Forty students were studied, with the group split between the experimental and control group. The result of this small study cannot be representative, but is indicative of areas of future development. The researchers’ recommendations were clear: “results from this study indicate that students who used the podcasts for an eighth Social Studies class outperformed the students who were given a silent study room to study their social studies. With this promising result, the researchers would suggest teachers should consider using podcasting in their classrooms because not only did students who had access to the podcast feel more comfortable taking assessments, but they also performed better than other students in their class. Since these podcasts are posted on a website, parents also have access to them so they can aid in their child’s educational development,” p. 843.
- 23.
O’Baoill [17].
- 24.
Didau [18], p. 2.
- 25.
Di dau [18], p. 39.
- 26.
An expansive area of research is the role of podcasting in language learning. A strong study is Ting [19].
- 27.
Didau [18], p. 85
- 28.
It is no coincidence that medicine and dentistry – as disciplines – are over-represented in the podcasting literature. Besides an expansive content base, requiring a series of more complex revision strategies, the execution of professional practice necessitates a well-constructed auditory culture, where oral communication is of high quality. A fascinating – if mixed – study of podcasting in nurse education found that the faculty staff found the podcasts useful, but the students were less convinced. Geraldine Marrocco, Meredith Wallace Kazer and Leslie Neal-Boylan reported that “Many [students] viewed podcasts as extra work and preferred face-to-face class or written assignments,” from Transformational Learning in Graduate Nurse Education through podcasting,” Nursing Education Perspectives, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2014, pp. 49. Significantly, the students appeared to have understood podcasts as simply another way to present content. Actually the form of the presentation is also important: hearing information in a different form, necessitating alternative modes of interpretation.
- 29.
Ferguson et al. [20].
- 30.
D. Chen, “Foreword,” from Fontichiaro [21], foreword.
- 31.
To explore the life cycle of media please refer to Brabazon [22].
- 32.
Dubber [23].
- 33.
Parikka [24], p. 15.
- 34.
Grubbs [25], p. xv.
- 35.
This multimodality was enfolded into the phrase ‘new media’ in the 2000s. Please refer to Kist [26].
- 36.
Hamme rsley [27].
- 37.
Mason and Rennie [28].
- 38.
Podcasting is a portmanteau of ‘iPod’ and ‘broadcast’ and has stabilized its meaning to connote the online distribution of digitized media files and the use of syndicated feeds. The feed and subscription model is like a sonic direct debit. It can be set and files arrive without much thought. Playback is activated on portable media players and personal computers and time shifted to suit the listening patterns of subscribers. The initial attraction to recording podcasts was that individuals beyond radio stations could deliver and distribute programmes, creating a diversity of content, voices, accents and programme length. Rapidly though, the early adopters who expressed their enthusiasm and interests were joined by empowered institutions like schools, universities, museums, government and corporate communications. A major area of success has been the deployment of podcasts in formal education.
- 39.
How to podcast tutorial, www.how-to-podcast-tutorial.com.
- 40.
- 41.
Andrew Middleton, in his “Introduction” to Digital Voices [34], told of a workshop at the University of Chester’s Warrington campus in June 2008. He stated that, “the point of that workshop was to demonstrate that definitions or explanations of educational podcasting, or any other technology can be unnecessarily constraining: podcasting is what it needs to be. Above all the exercise proved that educational podcasting can be designed to meet the needs of any academic, any cohort, and ultimately, any student,” p. 4.
- 42.
Lectopia, http://www.lectopia.com.au/ and Echo 360, http://www.echo360.com/. Most amusingly, these organisations are part of the “Lecture Capture Community,” http://www.lecturecapture.com/.
- 43.
Perhaps it is time to be more descriptive and describe this activity as lecture-casting, rather than podcasting . To evaluate the functionality of this process, please refer to Schmoelz [35].
- 44.
Smith and Morris [36], p. 2.
- 45.
A. Chan and C. McLoughlin disagreed with my argument here, reporting that, “although substantive data is not available at this stage, in a postgraduate distance education cohort consisting of mature age, working professionals, the students appeared to favour text-based material in print or electronic (web-based) form. In fact, some even asked for transcripts of the podcasts to be supplied so they could avoid having to listen to them,” p. 18. While I have found the opposite of their findings – with mature-aged female students using sonic media educational sessions in the car on a school run for example – the assessment by Chan and McLoughlin of diverse learning communities requiring diverse media is an important corrective, particularly considering the title of their paper: “Ev eryone’s learning with podcasting: a C harles Sturt University experience,” Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Ascilite Conference, 2006, http://csusap.csu.edu.au/~achan/papers/2006_POD_ASCILITE.pdf.
- 46.
This chapter particularly focuses on podcasts rather than vodcasts . For the purposes of my theories of sonic media , sound-only platforms offer a distinctive mode of learning and thinking. Vodcasts – through the visual and sonic signifiers – hold much in common with televisual presentations, albeit with the inflection of user generated content. However there is also a technological issue to consider – beyond andragogical theories. In many areas of the world, insufficient bandwidth means that video presentations are stilted and subjected to an array of pauses and interruptions. Because podcasts are much smaller sonic files, there is less interruption while streaming and a much more rapid download. There are certainly workarounds. As one example, please refer to Rankothge and Dias [37].
- 47.
The PEW Internet and American Life project conducted a study of podcast downloaders and configured a profile, finding them to be most frequently male and experienced internet users. Their first study was conducted at the end of 2006. Please refer to Madden [38]. To monitor the changes in this profile two years later, “Podcast Downloading,” 2008, http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2008/Podcast-Downloading-2008/Data-Memo/Findings.aspx. Importantly, by May 2013, this proportion was increasing. PEW reported that 27 % of internet users download and listen to podcasts. Please refer to Zickuhr [39].
- 48.
Anderson [40].
- 49.
Marshall McLuhan described, “Acoustic space is a dwelling place for anyone who has not been conquered by the one-at-a-time, uniform ethos of the alphabet: from C. Cox and D. Warner (eds.), “Visual and acoustic space,” in C. Cox and D. Warner (eds.), Audio Culture, (New York: Continuum, 2004), pp. 68.
- 50.
Brabazon [41].
- 51.
To hear podcasting options that are available in a discipline such as law, please refer to Brabazon and Redh ead [42].
- 52.
Herring ton [33], p. 51.
- 53.
Belanger [43].
- 54.
Read [44].
- 55.
Earp et al. [45].
- 56.
Deal [46].
- 57.
- 58.
This realization enhances the complexity and plurality of how mobile learning is defined. It may not only signify time and space shifting, but also a changing relationship between production and consumption, learning and dissemination, learner and expert. An example of this changing definition and application of mobile learning is Ross Kendall’s “Podcasting and pedagogy,” from Douglas McConatha, Christian Penny, Jordan Schugar and David Bolton, Mobile Pedagogy and Perspectives on Teaching and Learning, (IGI Global, 2014), pp. 41–57. He stated that “mobile learning embodies the means to change relationships between learner and expert and that such connecting is a key attribute of contemporary podcasting in education,” p. 41.
- 59.
I have used short sonic sessions as an entrée – a primer – into a lecture, preparing students with a short introduction to the area of learning, with key questions to think about before entering the lecture theatre. A study of this “primer podcast” function is Popova et al. [47]. The specific value of these primer podcasts revealed in this article is that they are ‘joiners’: connecting old and new knowledge. These bridges encourage deeper learning by preparing students for new concepts. They also recommend the value of concluding the podcast with a question for the students to answer.
- 60.
Bergmann and Sams [48].
- 61.
These are increasingly being termed “learner-generated podcasts.” This phrase differentiates from teacher produced materials, particularly the dissemination of lectures (profcasts). To view an application of learner-generated podcasts in an English Business School, please refer to Powell and Robson [49].
- 62.
To review one academic’s use of sound for feedback, please refer to Anne Nortcliffe, “A journey through audio feedback” from Middleton [34], pp. 124–129. She demonstrated the value of audio feedback for students, but also for herself. As an academic with dyslexia, audio feedback was enabling to and for her clear expression to students. Therefore audio feedback is an example of universal design.
- 63.
A strong chapter investigating ‘audio’ notes for all university learners is A. Nortcliffe, A. Middleton and A. Rossiter, “Learners take control – audio notes for promoting learner autonomy,” from Middleton [34], pp. 57–69.
- 64.
A basic but clear guide to career-building through podcasting is Sawyer’s [50].
- 65.
This is particularly important as funding for guest speakers in universities decline. Also, in rural and regional areas, the ability to attract speakers to travel to these locations is difficult. Further, through the mobility of digital files, it is possible to bring a wide range of views, experience and expertise into a classroom that would not be possible through the physical transportation of speakers. Podcasts build connectivity.
- 66.
This type or genre of podcast can also be termed a DALO (Digital Audio Learning Object). Please refer to Richard McCarter and Andrew Middleton, “Digital audio learning objects – student co-operation and creativity in audio design,” from Middleton [34], pp. 103–112.
- 67.
Adams and Blair [51].
- 68.
To evaluate the role of podcasts for revision, please refer to, Shantikumar [52].
- 69.
Sha stry and Gi llespie [53], Kindle Edition, locations 88–96.
- 70.
Shastry and Gillespie [53], locations 438–437.
- 71.
Bob Sprankle , http://bobsprankle.com.
- 72.
For a wider discussion of audiences for student work, please refer to Fryer [54].
- 73.
Meng [55].
- 74.
Chan and McLoughlin [56].
- 75.
Windham [57].
- 76.
Brittain et al. [58].
- 77.
Brittain et al. [58], p. 29.
- 78.
Berk et al. [59].
- 79.
Be rk et al. [59].
- 80.
Vygotsky and Kozulin [60], p. 219.
- 81.
Fontichiaro [21], p. 45.
- 82.
Fontich iaro [61], p. 3.
- 83.
Bates [62].
- 84.
Romero-Gwynn and Marshall [63].
- 85.
- 86.
V arese [66], p. 20.
- 87.
For example, Steven Morris from The Guardian reported that the parents of downloaders were becoming target, “Mother faces music for girl’s illegal downloads,” The Guardian, July 21, 2005, p. 13. Similarly, a surcharge to internet users has been proposed to ‘manage’ illegal file sharing. Please refer to Morris [67].
- 88.
The PEW Internet and American Life project, in assessing music and video downloading, tracked this transformation and found that “the percentage of internet users who say they download music files has increased from 19 % (measured in a February 2004 survey) to 22 % in our latest survey from January 2005. Still, this number continues to rest well-below the peak level (32 %) that we registered in October 2002,” from Madden and Rainie [68].
- 89.
Sal mon et al. [69], p. 9.
- 90.
Mount and Chambers [70], p. 45.
- 91.
Maxy muk [71].
- 92.
Maxymuk [71].
- 93.
While my comments refer to doctoral education, some strong studies are emerging about the importance and value of student expression and voice in learning. In their study of an initial teacher education programme, Elaine Khoo, Dianne Forbes and E. Marcia Johnson showed how it operates in terms of differentiated learners, and learning communication and presentation skills. Please refer to Khoo et al. [72], pp. 481–486.
- 94.
Hegarty [73].
- 95.
Bendix [74].
- 96.
I log the extraordinary and innovative edited collection, Middleton [34].
- 97.
A. Middleton, “Why audio? Recognising the digital voice,” from Middleton [34], p. 11.
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Brabazon, T. (2016). Press Play. In: Brabazon, T. (eds) Play: A Theory of Learning and Change. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25549-1_10
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