Abstract
As the first piece of labour legislation after reform and opening up, the Labour Law (1994) has played a crucial role in promoting China’s economic transition. Nonetheless, with its drawbacks mostly owing to the social conditions at the time of its legislation, the Labour Law has to a large extent ignored regulation of the collective labour relationship. The Labour Law in its present form cannot meet the requirements arising from industrialisation, urbanisation and modernisation in China. Currently, the status quo of industrial relationships in China is complicated, with various conflicts intertwined. The symptoms include an increase in the number of labour disputes, the expansion of disputed matters and insufficiency of labour rights protection. Therefore, it is imperative for China to reform existing mechanisms of collective labour relationship governance. This article proposes that the new mechanism for labour governance should be characterised by industrial collective autonomy, indirect government intervention and safeguarded by trade unions at upper levels. The state should support these innovative local experiments and promote them nationwide on the basis of lessons drawn from practice.
This article is part of the work in progress under the research project “Creating a Legal Framework for Harmonious Labour Relations in China” funded by the National Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Science of China (Approval No: 11&ZD031). The author thanks Dr. Wei Qian and Dr. Yan Tian for their valuable assistance. Of course, all errors remain the author’s responsibility.
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Notes
- 1.
[Labour Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国劳动法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó láo dòng fǎ), 1994.
- 2.
The core Conventions ratified by China are: the Equal Remuneration Convention No. 100 (ratified on 2 Nov 1990); the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention No. 111 (ratified on 12 Jan 2006); the Minimum Age Convention No. 138 (ratified on 28 Apr 1999); and the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention No. 182 (ratified on 8 Aug 2002).
- 3.
[Labour Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国劳动法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó láo dòng fǎ), 1994.
- 4.
By March 1994, China had ratified 17 out of a total of 174 conventions so far adopted by the International Labour Organization. See [Li] 李伯明 1994.
- 5.
After its foundation, the People’s Republic of China implemented a fixed-personnel policy. This means that labour resources were allocated by the state and all personnel were fixed in their positions.
- 6.
[Labour Insurance Regulations of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国劳动保险条例 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó láo dòng bǎo xiǎn tiáo lì), 1951. It was also the first regulation on social insurance of the People’s Republic of China, and which set up the rules on injuries during and out of work, maternity leave and pensions. It was the predecessor of China’s social security system and laid the foundation for the unification of labour and social security.
- 7.
[Regulations on Salary Reform] 国务院关于工资改革的规定 (guó wù yuàn guān yú gōng zī gǎi gé de guī dìng), 1956.
- 8.
[Tentative Provisions on Retirement of Workers and Clerks] 国务院关于工人, 职员退休处理的暂行规定 (guó wù yuàn guān yú gōng rén, zhí yuán tuì xiū chǔ lǐ de zàn xíng guī dìng), 1958.
- 9.
Foreign-funded enterprises in China are categorised into three types: Sino-foreign equity joint ventures, Sino-foreign cooperative joint ventures and foreign-owned enterprises.
- 10.
China came up with the reform and opening up policy in 1978 and the former Ministry of Labour and Personnel issued the Notification on Testing the System of Labour Contracts in 1983. Through pilot projects in local areas, the system of labour contracts was carried out in accordance with a market economy. At the same time, with development of reform of the economy and the labour system, the labour dispute arbitration mechanism was restored in 1986 after 30 years of suspension.
- 11.
The State Council issued four important regulations in 1986, namely [Tentative Provisions on the System of Labour Contracts in State Enterprises] 国营企业实行劳动合同制暂行规定 (guó yíng qǐ yè shí xíng láo dòng hé tóng zhì zàn xíng guī dìng), 1986; [Tentative Provisions on Employment in State-Owned Enterprises] 国营企业招用工人暂行规定 (guó yíng qǐ yè zhāo yòng gōng rén zàn xíng guī dìng), 1986; [Tentative Provisions on Dismissing Undisciplined Employees in State-Owned Enterprises] 国营企业辞退违纪职工暂行规定 (guó yíng qǐ yè cí tuì wéi jì zhí gōng zàn xíng guī dìng), 1986; and [Tentative Provisions on Unemployment Insurance in State-Owned Enterprises] 国营企业职工待业保险暂行规定 (guó yíng qǐ yè zhí gōng dài yè bǎo xiǎn zàn xíng guī dìng), 1986. The role of labour contracts in formation of the labour relationship was emphasised and thus free will between enterprises and employees was respected. Unlike the practice in the planned economy, the labour relationship was no longer formed under the administrative power.
- 12.
[Employment Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国就业促进法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó jiù yè cù jìn fǎ), 2007.
- 13.
[Labour Contract Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国劳动合同法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó láo dòng hé tóng fǎ), 2007.
- 14.
[Labour Dispute Mediation and Arbitration Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国劳动争议调解仲裁法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó láo dòng zhēng yì tiáo jiě zhòng cái fă), 2007.
- 15.
[Social Insurance Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国社会保险法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó shè huì bǎo xiǎn fǎ), 2010.
- 16.
- 17.
This can be illustrated by statistics in [Li and Tian] 李林 and 田禾 2014. The report shows that over the past 13 years, among more than a hundred group events, labour disputes account for about 3 % of mass incidents involving over 100 persons, and that labour disputes accounting for 36.5 % of mass incidents with thousands of persons are the main cause of such incidents.
- 18.
[Li and Tian] 李林 and 田禾 2014, at pp. 270–288.
- 19.
See [Ding] 丁建华 2010.
- 20.
For instance, in 2011, care workers of Shanghai Xinhua Hospital collectively protested since the hospital did not pay for their social insurance. See [Bao] 包璐影 2011.
- 21.
See [Gui] 桂良 2012.
- 22.
See [Liu] 刘晓燕 2013.
- 23.
See [Xia, Yang and Wang] 夏正芳, 杨晓蓉 and 王芬 2013.
- 24.
In 2009, about 1,000 staff from Baoding Cotton Mill “made a walking tour to Beijing” along the State Road, and about 1,000 workers from Wuhan Boiler Factory protested by blocking roads three times. See [Yang] 杨琳 2009.
- 25.
See [Zhou] 周正华 2009.
- 26.
[Trade Union Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国工会法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó gōng huì ǎ), 1992.
- 27.
There is room for collective labour dispute litigation in the existing litigation system, where the understanding of “collective labour dispute”, however, is different from that in the law on collective labour relationships. According to the latter, any labour dispute involving more than 10 individuals can be called a “collective labour dispute”. Therefore, courts tend to apply relevant judicial rules on the basis of individual labour disputes. For example, in Guangdong, a case on arrears of wages involved over 200 workers, and the amount of overdue wages claim by individual workers was relatively small. Nonetheless, the court insisted on filing separately, which forced the parties and agents to prepare more than 200 copies of entrustment agreements, complaints, agent representations and so on. See [Guangzhou Daily] 广州日报 2014.
- 28.
[Liu] 刘晓燕 2013.
- 29.
[Qian] 钱培坚 2013.
- 30.
Labour disputes can be divided into disputes on rights and disputes over interests. Disputes on rights refer to disagreements as to proper implementation of employment contracts or collective agreements. However, disputes over interests often result from workers’ claim for changes to labour conditions, typically such as demanding a raise in wages or holiday pay. It is observed that the number of disputes over interests in China has grown rapidly most recently.
- 31.
For instance, in January 2013, 1,300 workers at an electrical products factory in Bao’an District of Shenzhen City went on strike and required the employer to provide compensation for a buyout. Local street officials, as well as dozens of staff from labour boards, the emergency command, police stations, and community services and so on, entered the factory to placate the parties until the employer compromised and the workers returned to work. See [Huang and Zhan] 黄浩苑 and 詹奕嘉 2013.
- 32.
Jimei District of Xiamen City has established a “special fund for workers’ pay talks”, which means the government may advance wages that were illegally withheld by employers from workers, so as to meet the latter’s urgent needs and to reduce the probability of the occurrence of collective labour conflicts. See [Yong] 永平 2012.
- 33.
For example, in October 2011, employees of another factory in Bao’an District of Shenzhen City went on strike since they disagreed with the employer’s calculation of wages. They returned to work after the government put pressure on both parties, which made the government believe that the issue had been resolved. However, since the focus of the dispute was not settled, the workers slowed down their work efficiency by an observable drop to no less than 30 % of that in the normal state, indicating the continuance of conflict at any time. The factory finally solved the problem when the workers obtained assistance from lawyers and reached an agreement after negotiation with the employer. See [Wang] 王道军 2011.
- 34.
[The Decision on Further Strengthening the Work of Trade Unions in Enterprises to Comprehensively Discharge Their Function] 关于进一步加强企业工会工作充分发挥企业工会作用的决定 (guān yú jìn yī bù jiā qiáng qǐ yè gōng huì gōng zuò chōng fēn fā huī qǐ yè gōng huì zuò yòng de jué dìng), 2010.
- 35.
[Interim Measures for Collective Consultation on Wages] 工资集体协商试行办法 (gōng zī jí tǐ xié shāng shì xíng bàn fǎ), Ministry of Labour and Social Security, 2000.
- 36.
[Working Plan to Further Promote Collective Consultation on Wages from 2011 to 2013] 2011–2013 年深入推进工资集体协商工作规划 (2011–2013 nián shēn rù tuī jìn gōng zī jí xié shāng gōng zuò guī huà), 2011.
- 37.
See [Fan and Qi] 樊曦 and 齐中熙 2013.
- 38.
See [Tian and Ma] 田静 and 马思华 2013.
- 39.
[Regulations on Democratic Management of Enterprises] 企业民主管理规定 (qǐ yè mín zhǔ guǎn lǐ guī dìng), 2012.
- 40.
See [Zhang] 张辉 2010.
- 41.
See investigation report by [Huang and Zhan] 黄浩苑 and 詹奕嘉 2013.
- 42.
[Regulations on Democratic Management of Enterprises] 企业民主管理规定 (qǐ yè mín zhǔ guǎn lǐ guī dìng), 2012.
- 43.
[Decision of the CCP Central Committee on the Comprehensive Promotion of Several Major Issues of the Rule of Law] 中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定 (zhōng gòng zhōng yāng guān yú quán miàn tuī jìn yī fǎ zhì guó ruò gān zhòng dà wèn tí de jué dìng), 2014.
- 44.
[Decision of the CCP Central Committee on Some Major Issues concerning Comprehensively Deepening the Reform] 中共中央关于全面深化改革若干重大问题的决定 (zhōng gòng zhōng yāng guān yú quán miàn shēn huà gǎi gé ruò gān zhòng dà wèn tí de jué dìng), 2013.
- 45.
Ibid., Section 29.
- 46.
Ibid., Section 44.
- 47.
Ibid., Section 43.
- 48.
[People’s Daily] 人民日报 2014.
- 49.
Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention No. 98, 1949, Article 5.
- 50.
[Provisions of Shenzhen Special Economic Zone on Collective Consultation (Draft)] 深圳经济特区集体协商条例 (草案) (shēn zhèn jīng jì tè qū jí tǐ xié shāng tiáo lì (cǎo àn)), 2010.
- 51.
[Provisions of Guangdong Province on Collective Contract in Enterprises] 广东省企业集体合同条例 (guǎng dōng shěng qǐ yè jí tǐ hé tóng tiáo lì), 2014.
- 52.
[Interim Measures for Collective Consultation on Wages] 工资集体协商试行办法 (gōng zī jí tǐ xié shāng shì xíng bàn fǎ), 2000.
- 53.
See [Long] 龙飞 2010.
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Convention concerning the Application of the Principles of the Right to Organise and to Bargain Collectively, adopted 1 July 1949, ILO C098. Entry into force 18 July 1951. (Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention).
Convention concerning Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation, adopted 25 June 1958, ILO C111. Entry into force 15 June 1960. (Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention).
Convention concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, adopted 26 June 1973, ILO C138. Entry into force 19 June 1976. (Minimum Age Convention).
Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour, adopted 17 June 1999, ILO C182. Entry into force 19 November 2000. (Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention).
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[Trade Union Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国工会法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó gōng huì fǎ), National People’s Congress, adopted and effective 3 April 1992. Revised and effective 27 October 2001.
Laws by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress
[Employment Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国就业促进法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó jiù yè cù jìn fǎ), Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, adopted 30 August 2007, effective 1 January 2008. Revised and effective 24 April 2015.
[Labour Contract Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国劳动合同法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó láo dòng hé tóng fǎ), Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, adopted 29 June 2007, effective 1 January 2008. Revised 28 December 2012, effective 1 July 2013.
[Labour Dispute Mediation and Arbitration Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国劳动争议调解仲裁法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó láo dòng zhēng yì tiáo jiě zhòng cái fǎ), Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, adopted 29 December 2007, effective 1 May 2008.
[Labour Law of the People’s Republic of China] 中华人民共和国劳动法 (zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó láo dòng fǎ), Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, adopted 5 July 1994, effective 1 January 1995.
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[Regulations on Salary Reform] 国务院关于工资改革的规定 (guó wù yuàn guān yú gōng zī gǎi gé de guī dìng), State Council of People’s Republic of China, adopted and effective 4 July 1956.
[Tentative Provisions on Dismissing Undisciplined Employees in State-Owned Enterprises] 国营企业辞退违纪职工暂行规定 (guó yíng qǐ yè cí tuì wéi jì zhí gōng zàn xíng guī dìng), State Council, adopted 12 July 1986, effective 1 October 1986.
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[Tentative Provisions on Retirement of Workers and Clerks] 国务院关于工人、职员退休处理的暂行规定 (guó wù yuàn guān yú gōng rén, zhí yuán tuì xiū chǔ lǐ de zàn xíng guī dìng), State Council, adopted 16 November 1957, effective 6 February 1958.
[Tentative Provisions on the System of Labour Contracts in State Enterprises] 国营企业实行劳动 合同制暂行规定 (guó yíng qǐ yè shí xíng láo dòng hé tóng zhì zàn xíng guī dìng), State Council, adopted and effective 7 December 1986.
[Tentative Provisions on Unemployment Insurance in State-Owned Enterprises] 国营企业职工待业保险暂行规定 (guó yíng qǐ yè zhí gōng dài yè bǎo xiǎn zàn xíng guī dìng), State Council, adopted 12 July 1986, effective 1 October 1986.
Administrative Regulations
[Interim Measures for Collective Consultation on Wages] 工资集体协商试行办法 (gōng zī jí tǐ xié shāng shì xíng bàn fǎ), Ministry of Labour and Social Security, adopted 10 October 2000, effective 10 October 2000.
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[Decision of the CCP Central Committee on Some Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening the Reform] 中共中央关于全面深化改革若干重大问题的决定 (zhōng gòng zhōng yāng guān yú quán miàn shēn huà gǎi gé ruò gān zhòng dà wèn tí de jué dìng), adopted at the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on 12 November 2013.
[Decision of the CCP Central Committee on the Comprehensive Promotion of Several Major Issues of the Rule of Law] 中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定 (zhōng gòng zhōng yāng guān yú quán miàn tuī jìn yī fǎ zhì guó ruò gān zhòng dà wèn tí de jué dìng), adopted at the Fourth Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on 23 October 2014.
[Decision on Further Strengthening the Work of Trade Unions in Enterprises to Comprehensively Discharge Their Function] 关于进一步加强企业工会工作充分发挥企业工会作用的决定 (guān yú jìn yī bù jiā qiáng qǐ yè gōng huì gōng zuò chōng fēn fā huī qǐ yè gōng huì zuò yòng de jué dìng), All-China Federation of Trade Union, adopted and effective 26 July 2010.
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Ye, J. (2016). Reforming the Regulatory Mechanism for the Collective Labour Relationship in China: Diagnosis and Outlook. In: Liukkunen, U., Chen, Y. (eds) Fundamental Labour Rights in China - Legal Implementation and Cultural Logic. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol 49. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23156-3_10
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