Abstract
Again from the corpo-spiritual or pagan idolatrous perspective on ethics, in the present chapter I wish to examine two key areas of contemporary concern in the light of heptatheonic virtue-values, namely, hegemony and the environment – with negative environmental issues collectively constituting a further instance of hegemonic vice. The exercise of domination and the well-being and future preservation of our planet occupy much of current global attention. Issues of power have always occupied humanity in one manner or another through war, conflict, inequality and contentions over ownership, but now, in the face of vastly increasing ecological peril, our awareness of the natural world itself has become a worrying part of our consciousness as well. The ethical stance I am pursuing may be assessed as pagan to the degree it is human. And likewise, it is an arresting matter for all of us inasmuch as it concerns what is naturally human, that is, our root-level pagan affinity that I contend is at the core of human existence. In other words, we are all basically pagan, and I maintain that that is what is natural to us as human beings, and as such, whether we admit it or not, whether we are conscious of it or not, we are all concerned naturally with our environment. Nevertheless, the whole issue of ecology – from eco-awareness, ingrained gnostic sentiment, nature as dynamic but amoral, ritual and science – is huge and hugely disorienting. I do not have answers here, but I seek instead to bring environmental concerns as well as the broader area of hegemonic dominance to the reader’s mind and hopefully problem solving awareness in facing honestly our here-and-now realities.
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Notes
- 1.
The irony here is that the institution of marriage may be seen as legitimation (however ultimately necessary) of the initial violation of a virgin. Marriage legitimates what otherwise is forbidden. In cultures of arranged marriage or ‘forced’ marriage, the bride is virtually subjected to sanctioned rape – as her own mother once was, and her mother’s mother before her. There is additionally the issue of ‘rape within marriage’.
- 2.
The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) names the potentials for discrimination specifically as race, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, sex, age, mental or physical disability, sexual orientation and place of birth. http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/cida_ind.nsf/8949395286e4d3a58525641300568be1/0b4081ac59052fde852568fc0067579d?OpenDocument#1 (accessed 4 January 2006).
- 3.
This is derived from my own research and analysis in which I conclude that Wicca, deriving from the theurgic/magical/esoteric tradition functions as the mid-wife to the contemporary Western pagan movement. Although it has reinterpreted or re-evaluated the concept of reincarnation, the doctrine itself is a gnostic/dharmic derivative, while Gardner’s adoption of the Freemasonic identity of the elements with the cardinal directions in which the (theosophically barren) earth is placed in the north rather than to the south with its more expected pagan associations of fertility, fecundity and growth is another inheritance of transcendental gnosticism.
- 4.
Loc. cit. note 2 supra.
- 5.
http://www.gender.go.jp/index2.html (accessed 4 January 2006). This website discusses Japan’s Basic Law for a Gender-equal Society (Law No. 78 of 1999). See further http://www.gender.go.jp/english_contents/index.html (accessed 24 July 2014).
- 6.
For cogent discussions on these points, see both Anne Elvey’s article on “Ecofeminism and Biblical Interpretation” and Laura Hobgood-Oster’s on “Ecofeminism – Historic and International Evolution” in Taylor (2005:532–39).
- 7.
On the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), refer to http://www.un.org/womenwatch/. Note also the European Commission’s initiatives to promote gender equality in development cooperation: http://europa.eu.int/comm/europeaid/projects/gender/index_en.htm for which gender discrimination is seen as a violation of human rights as well as an obstacle to successful social and economic development.
- 8.
See in particular http://www.mayflowerucc.org for the November 4, 2005 speech to the University of Oklahoma by the Rev. Dr. Robin Meyers of the Mayflower Congregational Church of Oklahoma City. Meyers angrily denounces the actions of those who claim to speak for Jesus but are anything but Christian. Meyers lists as immoral the engaging in war under false pretenses but alleging it as God’s will, the accusations against critics in this instance as unpatriotic or lacking in faith, the breaking of international rules established by the United Nations, claiming that Jesus is the Lord of one’s life while ignoring his essential teachings embodied in the Sermon on the Mount, totally disregarding the lives of Iraqi citizens, disregarding the fundamental gospel teachings by granting tax breaks to the wealthiest – allowing the strong to become stronger and the weak weaker, engaging in the torture of prisoners, purely pursuing aggrandizement of self and one’s own friends, jeopardizing future generations by spending on a war with no exit strategy, becoming callously indifferent to the hatred engendered toward one’s country that was once the most loved in the world, resorting to the Constitution as a weapon of hatred against homosexuals, favoring the death penalty rather than adhering to Jesus’ rejection of ‘an eye for an eye’ morality, dismantling countless environmental laws that were designed to protect the earth for future generations rather than to enrich corporate profit, resembling the enemy with the assertion that one’s own God is good while that of the other is evil, showing no compassion toward the needy or those who are in disagreement with one’s own position, depriving health care to the ill and indigent, and violating the justice system by insuring its exclusive support of one’s own position. This talk may also be found at http://newconnexion.net/articles/index.cfm/2005/03/robin_meyers.html (accessed 24 July 2014). In a related development, Fox News reported on 11 November 2005 that “Ninety-five United Methodist Bishops repent their ‘complicity’ in the ‘unjust and immoral’ invasion and occupation of Iraq.” Deploring their own silence, the statement of conscience was signed by more than half of the 164 retired and active United Methodist bishops worldwide. Vide Hudon (2005, November 11), “Methodist Bishops Repent Iraq War ‘Complicity’”: http://www.cedp.ca/Archives2005/WritingWall45.htm (accessed 20 October 2014).
.
Note also that the Washington-based Baptist preacher Jim Wallis, author of God’s Politics, has been described by Andrew Gumbel (2005) as a person who believes that following the Gospel teachings means “standing up for the poor, agitating for universal health care, protecting the environment and combating the military-industrial complex in all its forms.” In Wallis’ words, “I don’t think Jesus’s first two priorities would have been a capital-gains-tax cut and the occupation of Iraq.” In November 2004 at the All Saints Episcopalian church in Beverly Hills, Wallis raised the issues of poverty, the environment, the American health-care crisis and HIV/Aids as moral values that are ignored in the Republican political playbook. Wallis’ major point is that every American progressive movement in the country’s history has been religiously inspired in one manner or another. What the more moderate evangelicals, Roman Catholics, mainline middle-of-the-road Protestants, black evangelicals, progressive rabbis and even young Muslims are looking for in America, according to Wallis, is not the political middle so much as it is a moral center.
- 9.
Ibid. (http://www.mayflowerucc.org – Meyers 2005).
- 10.
“Preface to the Paperback Edition” of Ferguson (2005:vii).
- 11.
As Ferguson (2005:33) sees the American irony, “there were no more self-confident imperialists than the Founding Fathers themselves”: Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton. The westward expansion of the thirteen original American states was conducted with little or no regard to the agreement of indigenous peoples. Treaties were bought and subsequently broken with Native Americans as the land-hungry mass migration, religious motivations and military strength of the U.S. governmentally-backed Euro-American alone dictated. The U.S. was at least able to secure territory nominally held by its European rivals more often than not by conquest but by purchase. Beyond the North American continent itself, America’s maritime empire was established through strategic, commercial and ideological considerations: Midway, Guam, Wake Island, Samoa and Hawaii. Puerto Rico and the Philippines were acquired through war; Alaska and the Virgin Islands, through purchase. In addition, America’s imperial influence short of outright annexation has operated in Columbia-Panama, Cuba, Hispanola, Nicaragua and Mexico.
For a presentation of the often shameless expansion of the 13 original states and the accompanying conniving strategies and violations, see Josephy (1994). In this light, in condemning the shenanigans of California’s Bear Flag revolt, Josiah Royce warned “that when our nation is another time about to serve the devil, it will do so with more frankness, and will deceive itself less by half-unconscious cant. For the rest, our mission in the cause of liberty is to be accomplished through a steadfast devotion to the cultivation of our own inner life, and not by going abroad as missionaries, as conquerors, or as marauders, among weaker peoples" (cited in Starr 1973:160).
- 12.
“Empires expand … or contract … because that is what makes them empires. If they minded their own business and stayed within their own borders [as nation-states do], they would not be empires. … A true empire cannot help itself. It must engage in … extravagant ‘imperial overstretch’ that it can no longer pay the costs.” From “Today’s Daily Reckoning – Taking The Bull By The Horns,” The Daily Reckoning [http://www.dailyreckoning.com] (4.10.5 09:22 PDT). Vide Fuller (2005).
- 13.
Ferguson (2005:23).
- 14.
On the intense preoccupation with information control of the Bush administration, “arguably the most secretive in U.S. history,” see Hugh Urban, “Religion and Secrecy in the Bush Administration: The Gentleman, the Prince, and the Simulacrum” to be found at
http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeVII/Secrecy.htm (accessed 15.8.5). Moreover,Scott McConnell sees that “The failure of Americans to generate a politically significant domestic opposition to the war is now one of the most important developments in world politics. It means that the Bush administration can contemplate, without any fear of adverse domestic political consequences, expansion of its war to Syria or a large-scale bombing of Iran. The only constraints on its behavior are international.” For this last, see “How They Get Away With It,” e-PRAXIS e-List (4 July Issue: Copyright © 2005 The American Conservative – accessed on the 13th of July, 2005: http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article9354.htm). But even the point that has been made here is now questionable in the light of the following: “The bilateral instruments, signed by Minister for Justice Michael McDowell and the US Ambassador to Ireland James C Kenny last week, provide for sweeping powers to be given to the US authorities on request, including the right to seize documents, check bank accounts and carry out searches of property [of suspects arrested on Irish soil].” For this, consult ‘Human Rights Commission to probe CIA agreement’ – http://www.breakingnews.ie/ireland/human-rights-commission-to-probe-cia-agreement-212682.html (accessed 24 July 2014).
- 15.
Summers (1965:39–42).
- 16.
Dio Cassius 43.24; York (1986:180f).
- 17.
Ovid, Fasti 3.291-344; York (1986:245f).
- 18.
Tilman (2000:211).
- 19.
Pievani (2014).
- 20.
For UNESCO’s Biodiversity Initiative, see http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/special-themes/biodiversity-initiative/biodiversity-culture/ (accessed 8 April 2014).
- 21.
Personal communication (6 March 2014).
- 22.
Curott (2005:22) – author’s italics.
- 23.
Ibid. p. 21.
- 24.
Op-Ed Columnist Nicholas D. Kristof, “The Big Burp Theory of the Apocalypse,” New York Times (18.4.6) – forwarded to me by Hecate Gould on 18 April 2006. See further http://www.realclimate.org/ (“Kristof on the Apocalypse” 19.4.6): http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2006/04/kristof-on-the-apocalypse/ (accessed 27 July 2014).
- 25.
Hoge (2004). In 1997, Gorbachev himself declared, “I believe in the cosmos … nature is my god. To me, nature is sacred. Trees are my temples and forests are my cathedrals.” (“Nature is my God: an interview with Fred Master,” Resurgence: An International Forum for Ecological and Spiritual Thinking 184, Sept.-Oct. 1997:14f – cited in Taylor 2010:176 with Taylor’s emphasis.) See also http://izquotes.com/quote/232663 (accessed 27 July 2014)
- 26.
Campbell (2005).
- 27.
Leopold (1970:239).
- 28.
- 29.
Deane-Drummond (2004:30).
- 30.
- 31.
Henderson (2004).
- 32.
Ibid.
- 33.
The pursuit of the unnatural is, from a deep-pagan perspective, the goal of gnosticism. Much of this last survived in the discipline of alchemy popular especially during the Renaissance with its efforts “to replicate or improve on nature.” The alchemical pursuit has as much to do with the transformation of the soul, its emancipation from the earthly, although it was conducted under the auspices of metaphor as well as attempts toward actual transmutations of matter. A basic pagan approach concerning transformation is to conform to the natural evolutionary processes of the world rather than resort to artificial interventions that aim to change nature itself. See the New York Times’ Edward Rothstein’s review of William R. Newman’s Promethean Ambitions: Alchemy and the Quest to Perfect Nature (International Herald Tribune, 2 August 2004).
- 34.
Bill Moyers, “There is No Tomorrow,” The Star Tribune (30 January 2005): http://www.ddh.nl/pipermail/wereldcrisis/2005.txt (accessed 23 January 2006). While the apocalypse-wishing element of Christianity is often criticized and considered dangerous by pagans, it is important to note that many radical greens hold that humans are little more than cockroaches infesting the cosmos, especially as a plague upon the earth, and that the collapse of human civilization is necessary before terrestrial life can become re-harmonized.
- 35.
Bob Sechler, “Scientists crank up volume in push for clean coal plants,” The Wall Street Journal (Thursday, 12 January 2006:4).
- 36.
“Ten Years of Genetically Modified Crops Fail to Deliver Benefits to Africa,” African Center for Biosafety and Friends of the Earth Nigeria, 10 January 2006: http://www.biosafetyafrica.net/_DOCS/PressReleaseACB_FoENigeria.pdf (accessed 16 January 2006). “Ten years after the first significant planting of Genetically Modified (GM) crops there are no apparent benefits for consumers, farmers or the environment, … there has been no impact on hunger and poverty … the reality of the last ten years shows that the safety of GM crops cannot be ensured and that these crops are neither cheaper nor better quality.”
- 37.
Andrew Stone, “Profit from running an ethical firm,” The Sunday Times – Business (29 August 2004). Vide Alton (2012).
- 38.
Traci Hukill, “The Greening of Goldman Sachs” (Tuesday 3 January 2006). http://www.alternet.org/envirohealth/29901/ (accessed 4 January 2006). According to the new environmental policy, the investment bank “Goldman Sachs will:
-
Disclose the greenhouse gas emissions of all its operations;
-
Make $1 billion available for investments in renewable energy;
-
Set up a think tank to identify other lucrative green markets;
-
Work on public policy measures relating to climate change;
-
Conduct more rigorous assessments of its new projects’ impacts on the environment and on indigenous people;
-
Refuse to finance extractive projects in World Heritage sites or any projects that violate the environmental laws of the host country.”
-
- 39.
Ibid. As Hukill (loc. cit.) puts it, “Maybe someday corporate reverence for nature will be unsullied by filthy lucre, but for now it may be appropriate to stop and gratefully reflect on a minor miracle that has taken place,” namely, the recognition that environmental interest is in the interest of business.
- 40.
Shiller (2005) makes the interesting observation in discussing financial theory as the cornerstone of modern business education: “nowhere is ethics seen as a centerpiece or even integral part of the curriculum.” Business school ethics courses seem to be devoid of actual moral content; this, along with overspecialization at the university level as well as the lack of encouragement of inspirational high-mindedness, “can lead to an ethical disconnect.” Shiller explains that being taught in the business world to calculate one’s own advantage ceaselessly, that is, maximizing one’s own “expected utility,” engenders total selfish behavior and little more. He concludes that “we should be reminded that ethical behavior for many business people must involve overcoming their learned biases.” To this end, he suggests integrating “business education into a broader historical and psychological context.”
- 41.
Worster (1994 [1977]:13, 15 et passim).
- 42.
Taylor (2010:210; see further pp 285f).
- 43.
Blacker (2004).
- 44.
For this last, see McKay (1996:127–58). The Dongas tribe formed in 1992 – its name deriving according to McKay from “the landscape the tribe came together at the camp to preserve, Dongas being a Matabele name [that was] originally adopted in the nineteenth century by Winchester College teachers for the medieval pathways that criss-cross the Downs” (p. 136). See further, Alexandra Plows in Taylor (2005:504–506) for more on the Donga Tribe.
- 45.
Dave van Ginhoven, “Anti-NATO forest siege cut down,” The Times: Hague, Amsterdam, Rotterdam (Vrijdag 13 Januari 2006:3).
- 46.
Along with the Dongas Tribe, the London-headquartered Dragon Environmental Group is among the foremost expressions of an ecologically oriented pagan spirituality. Typically, both Dragon and Dongas emphasize the use of ritual ceremony based on ancient myth or what has been criticized as an ‘atavistic taste for supernaturalism’. See McKay (1996:147). For more on Dragon, see Adrian Harris in Taylor (2005:506f).
- 47.
Deane-Drummond (2004:30).
- 48.
Ibid., but for Deane-Drummond, prudence refers to the “practical grounding for ethical decision-making,” whereas wisdom is “its theological counterpart” that encourages the grounding of prudent grounding in “fellowship with God” (p. 44). Later (pp. 45–48), she connects an ethics of nature with justice in particular – justice in Aquinas’ sense as a virtue of the will. Without the Christian teleology, justice here compares to a pagan understanding of honor and worship. Deane-Drummond also cites courage, temperance and wonder as necessary in forming an environmental ethic.
- 49.
What the human species is facing or is about to face on the planet earth is massive calamity. There will be, hopefully, some survivors. My belief is that, because of their own innate closeness to the earth and organics, the pagan will become one of the major future sources for human survival.
- 50.
See, e.g., Callicott (2002) and, for a critical assessment of Leopold, Dale R. McCullough: http://www.myxyz.org/phmurphy/dog/Aldo%20Leopold%20Presentations.pdf (accessed 4 April 2014) – passim and, especially concerning ‘The Land Ethic Paradigm’, the section “Where Do We Go From Here?” (pp 35–43/52).
- 51.
“Virtue, in its primary focus on agents, forces a degree of self-reflection that is not always achievable if the problems are identified as external or alien to ordinary human lives”: Deane-Drummond (2004:225).
- 52.
For the position of ‘enlightened anthropocentrism’, see Berry (2003:89) who considers this as the most feasible basis for the development of environmental ethics because the human individual and community are factored into the equation concerning natural equilibrium and change.
- 53.
- 54.
Ibid. (2001a) p. 179 (author’s italics).
- 55.
- 56.
Smith (2006).
- 57.
Ibid. While referring to a mystical experience he had had as a child, Hoffman recalled, “I was completely astonished by the beauty of nature.” He added to Smith that any natural scientist who was not a mystic was not really a natural scientist. In an email circulated on the 24th of September 2005, the unknown author, self-identified as a chemist himself, reports the following: “On Friday, April 16, 1943, in the course of recrystallizing a few hundredths of a gram of LSD for analysis, Dr. Hofmann reports that he ‘was seized by a peculiar sensation of vertigo and restlessness. Objects as well as the shape of my associates in the laboratory appeared to undergo optical changes. I was unable to concentrate on my work. In a dreamlike state, I left for home, where an irresistible urge to lie down and sleep overcame me. Light was so intense as to be unpleasant. I drew the curtains and immediately fell into a peculiar state of “drunkenness,” characterized by an exaggerated imagination. With my eyes closed, fantastic pictures of extraordinary plasticity and intensive color seemed to surge towards me. After two hours, this state gradually subsided and I was able to eat dinner with a good appetite’.” The author of this email, however, surmises on the unlikely synchronicities that were at work on this occasion: the unexplained decision by Hoffman to re-visit and re-synthesize the chemical compound he had first created and dismissed five years earlier, the author’s conviction that, as a Swiss chemist, Hoffman’s laboratory would not have been anything but immaculate, that “the form of LSD that he was working with was a salt of tartaric acid, which is not absorbed across the skin,” that “the intensity of mental effects reported by Hofmann usually occurs only after taking a fairly large dose of LSD, perhaps nearly one-tenth of a milligram – Yet Hofmann says they subsided after only ‘two hours’,” and the author then wonders, “Is it possible that Hofmann never accidentally ingested LSD at all? His childhood visionary experiences suggest that he may have been prone to spontaneous states of altered consciousness. What if he had a spontaneous visionary experience on that Friday afternoon while he was working with LSD?” It is exactly this kind of synchronicity-logic that frequently characterizes pagans’ perception of nature’s inherent mystery and sacredness. As do the gods, the elements and substances of intrinsic value speak to us even if and when we are not particularly cognizant of them.
- 58.
- 59.
Taylor (2001b:229).
- 60.
Taylor (2001a:183).
- 61.
See Singer (1993:132–134).
- 62.
Personal communication. For Bron Taylor (personal communication of 6.3.14), Gadon’s attitude contravenes the ‘live and let live’ philosophy of Leopold’s Land Ethic.
- 63.
For instance, the French gastronomic delight of foie gras is under attack by the Council of Europe which issued a directive in 1998 declaring that no animal is to be “provided with food or liquid in a manner … which may cause unnecessary suffering or injury.” The objection to the force-feeding of ducks and geese is bitterly opposed by Gallic culinary culture. See, in this case, “France defies EU to continue force-feeding birds for foie gras,” The Guardian (18 September 2004:17).
- 64.
According to Berry (2003:89), an “enlightened anthropocentrism may be the best approach for forming proper environmental attitudes” (my italics). I argue that a non-hegemonic anthropocentrism embraces a pagan humanism that unabashedly affirms our potential and growth along with our being a part of our planet’s biotic community in its healthy and functioning wholeness. Accordingly, I reject the notion that anthropocentrism and biocentrism are opposed. As humans, our very ability to flourish as a species depends on maintaining an ecocentric biodiversity. As a collective, we have responsibilities to other beings and systems as well as to ourselves.
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York, M. (2016). Hegemony and Environment. In: Pagan Ethics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18923-9_13
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