Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Parenteral Nutrition in Premature Infants

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Textbook of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition

Abstract

Optimizing postnatal nutritional supply is a major challenge in premature infants despite recent studies evaluating how to improve early nutritional support. Severe cumulative nutritional deficits may occur with adverse consequences on both short- and long-term outcomes. Complete enteral feeding is frequently delayed in premature infants, and parenteral nutrition (PN) represents essential therapeutic option for these infants. Available recommendations suggest starting PN as soon as possible after birth and rapidly attaining adequate intakes with a well-balanced solution in order to promote anabolism, to improve clinical outcomes, and to avoid biological disorders. A minimum intake of 40–60 kcal/kg/day with 2–3 g/kg/day of amino acids, 1–2 g/kg/day of lipids, and sufficient minerals is now recommended for the first hours of life in all premature infants. After immediate postnatal adaptation, intakes should rapidly increase during the first week of life, up to 95–125 kcal/kg/day with about 3–4 g/kg/day amino acids, 3–4 g/kg/day of lipids and adequate amounts of electrolytes, minerals, trace elements, and vitamins. There is a wide range of variation in PN practices among the neonatal units. This chapter discusses the principal theoretical aspects of PN in premature infants, the recommendations, and the opportunity to routinely optimize nutritional support, especially in very premature infants.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Fellman V, Hellstrom-Westas L, Norman M, Westgren M, Kallen K, Lagercrantz H, et al. One-year survival of extremely preterm infants after active perinatal care in Sweden. JAMA. 2009;301(21):2225–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Winick M, Rosso P. The effect of severe early malnutrition on cellular growth of human brain. Pediatr Res. 1969;3(2):181–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Embleton NE, Pang N, Cooke RJ. Postnatal malnutrition and growth retardation: an inevitable consequence of current recommendations in preterm infants? Pediatrics. 2001;107(2):270–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Widdowson EM, McCance RA. The effect of finite periods of undernutrition at different ages on the composition and subsequent development of the rat. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1963;158:329–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. McCance RA, Widdowson EM. The effects of chronic undernutrition and of total starvation on growing and adult rats. Br J Nutr. 1956;10(4):363–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Stephens BE, Walden RV, Gargus RA, Tucker R, McKinley L, Mance M, et al. First-week protein and energy intakes are associated with 18-month developmental outcomes in extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics. 2009;123(5):1337–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Ehrenkranz RA, Das A, Wrage LA, Poindexter BB, Higgins RD, Stoll BJ, et al. Early nutrition mediates the influence of severity of illness on extremely LBW infants. Pediatr Res. 2011;69(6):522–9.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Lucas A, Morley R, Cole TJ. Randomised trial of early diet in preterm babies and later intelligence quotient. BMJ. 1998;317(7171):1481–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Isaacs EB, Gadian DG, Sabatini S, Chong WK, Quinn BT, Fischl BR, et al. The effect of early human diet on caudate volumes and IQ. Pediatr Res. 2008;63(3):308–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Lapillonne A, Groh-Wargo S, Gonzalez CH, Uauy R. Lipid needs of preterm infants: updated recommendations. J Pediatr. 2013;162(3 Suppl):S37–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Latal-Hajnal B, von Siebenthal K, Kovari H, Bucher HU, Largo RH. Postnatal growth in VLBW infants: significant association with neurodevelopmental outcome. J Pediatr. 2003;143(2):163–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. De Curtis M, Rigo J. Extrauterine growth restriction in very-low-birthweight infants. Acta Paediatr. 2004;93(12):1563–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Grover A, Khashu M, Mukherjee A, Kairamkonda V. Iatrogenic malnutrition in neonatal intensive care units: urgent need to modify practice. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2008;32(2):140–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Lapillonne A, Carnielli VP, Embleton ND, Mihatsch W. Quality of newborn care: adherence to guidelines for parenteral nutrition in preterm infants in four European countries. BMJ Open. 2013;3(9):e003478.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Stewart JAD, Mason DG, Smith N, Protopapa R, Mason M. A mixed bag: an enquiry into the care of hospital patients receiving parenteral nutrition: a report by the national confidential enquiry into patient outcome and death. 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Senterre T, Rigo J. Parenteral nutrition in premature infants: Practical aspects to optimize postnatal growth and development. Arch Pediatr. 2013;20(9):986–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Senterre T. Optimization of nutritional support abolishes cumulative energy and protein deficits and improves postnatal growth in very low birth weight infants. [Medical Science Thesis (Ph.D.)]. Liège: University of Liège; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Vlaardingerbroek H, Vermeulen MJ, Rook D, van den Akker CH, Dorst K, Wattimena JL, et al. Safety and efficacy of early parenteral lipid and high-dose amino acid administration to very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr. 2013;163(3):638–44. e1–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Bonsante F, Iacobelli S, Latorre G, Rigo J, De Felice C, Robillard PY, et al. Initial amino acid intake influences phosphorus and calcium homeostasis in preterm infants–it is time to change the composition of the early parenteral nutrition. PLoS One. 2013;8(8):e72880.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. te Braake FW, van den Akker CH, Wattimena DJ, Huijmans JG, van Goudoever JB. Amino acid administration to premature infants directly after birth. J Pediatr. 2005;147(4):457–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Senterre T, Rigo J. Optimizing early nutritional support based on recent recommendations in VLBW infants and postnatal growth restriction. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2011;53(5):536–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Embleton ND, Simmer K. Practice of parenteral nutrition in VLBW and ELBW infants. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2014;110:177–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Morgan C, Herwitker S, Badhawi I, Hart A, Tan M, Mayes K, et al. SCAMP: standardised, concentrated, additional macronutrients, parenteral nutrition in very preterm infants: a phase IV randomised, controlled exploratory study of macronutrient intake, growth and other aspects of neonatal care. BMC Pediatr. 2011;11:53.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Doublet J, Vialet R, Nicaise C, Loundou A, Martin C, Michel F. Achieving parenteral nutrition goals in the critically ill newborns: standardized better than individualized formulations? Minerva Pediatr. 2013;65(5):497–504.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Agostoni C, Buonocore G, Carnielli VP, De Curtis M, Darmaun D, Decsi T, et al. Enteral nutrient supply for preterm infants: commentary from the European society of paediatric gastroenterology, hepatology and nutrition committee on nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2010;50(1):85–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Cole TJ, Wright CM, Williams AF. Designing the new UK-WHO growth charts to enhance assessment of growth around birth. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2012;97(3):F219–22.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Fenton TR, Kim JH. A systematic review and meta-analysis to revise the Fenton growth chart for preterm infants. BMC Pediatr. 2013;13:59.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Rigo J. Protein, amino acids and other nitrogen compounds. In: Tsang RC, Uauy R, Koletzko B, Zlotkin SH, editors. Nutrition of the preterm infant. Cincinnati: Digital Educating; 2005. pp. 45–80.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Simon L, Frondas-Chauty A, Senterre T, Flamant C, Darmaun D, Roze JC. Determinants of body composition in preterm infants at the time of hospital discharge. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014 ;100(1):98–104.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Ehrenkranz RA, Younes N, Lemons JA, Fanaroff AA, Donovan EF, Wright LL, et al. Longitudinal growth of hospitalized very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics. 1999; 104(2 Pt 1):280–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Martin CR, Brown YF, Ehrenkranz RA, O'Shea TM, Allred EN, Belfort MB, et al. Nutritional practices and growth velocity in the first month of life in extremely premature infants. Pediatrics. 2009;124(2):649–57.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Rigo J, Senterre T. Parenteral nutrition. In: Buenocore G, Bracci R, Weindling M, editors. Neonatology a practical approach to neonatal diseases. Italia: Springer-Verlag; 2012. pp. 311–9.

    Google Scholar 

  33. De Curtis M, Senterre J, Rigo J. Estimated and measured energy content of infant formulas. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1986;5(5):746–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Koletzko B, Goulet O, Hunt J, Krohn K, Shamir R. Guidelines on paediatric parenteral nutrition of the European society of paediatric gastroenterology, hepatology and nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the European society for clinical nutrition and metabolism (ESPEN), supported by the European society of paediatric research (ESPR). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005;41(Suppl 2):S1–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Leitch CA, Denne SC. Energy. In: Tsang RC, Uauy R, Koletzko B, Zlotkin SH, editors. Nutrition of the preterm infant. Cincinnati: Digital Educating; 2005. pp. 23–44.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Senterre T. Practice of enteral nutrition in very low birth weight and extremely low birth weight infants. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2014;110:201–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Van Goudoever JB, Sulkers EJ, Timmerman M, Huijmans JG, Langer K, Carnielli VP, et al. Amino acid solutions for premature neonates during the first week of life: the role of N-acetyl-L-cysteine and N-acetyl-L-tyrosine. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1994;18(5):404–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Tubman TR, Thompson SW, McGuire W. Glutamine supplementation to prevent morbidity and mortality in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;23(1):CD001457.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Ziegler EE. Meeting the nutritional needs of the low-birth-weight infant. Ann Nutr Metab. 2011;58(Suppl 1):8–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Van den Akker CH, Van Goudoever JB. Recent advances in our understanding of protein and amino acid metabolism in the human fetus. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2009;13(1):75–80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. te Braake FW, van den Akker CH, Riedijk MA, van Goudoever JB. Parenteral amino acid and energy administration to premature infants in early life. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2007;12(1):11–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Yeung MY. Glucose intolerance and insulin resistance in extremely premature newborns, and implications for nutritional management. Acta Paediatr. 2006;95(12):1540–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Denne SC. Protein and energy requirements in preterm infants. Semin Neonatol. 2001;6(5):377–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Thureen PJ. Early aggressive nutrition in very preterm infants. Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Pediatr Program. 2007;59:193–204; discussion -8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Thureen PJ, Melara D, Fennessey PV, Hay WW, Jr. Effect of low versus high intravenous amino acid intake on very low birth weight infants in the early neonatal period. Pediatr Res. 2003;53(1):24–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Ibrahim HM, Jeroudi MA, Baier RJ, Dhanireddy R, Krouskop RW. Aggressive early total parental nutrition in low-birth-weight infants. J Perinatol. 2004;24(8):482–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Senterre T, Abu Zahirah I, Pieltain C, de Halleux V, Rigo J. Electrolyte and mineral homeostasis after optimizing early macronutrient intakes in VLBW infants on parenteral nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 20 May 2015. [Epub ahead of print].

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Senterre T, Rigo J. Blood urea nitrogen during the first 2 weeks of life in VLBW infants receiving high protein intakes. Pediatr Res. 2011;70 (S5):767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Senterre T, Rigo J. Metabolic acidosis during the first 2 weeks of life in VLBW infants receiving high protein intakes. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37(S2):S397.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Wilson DC, Cairns P, Halliday HL, Reid M, McClure G, Dodge JA. Randomised controlled trial of an aggressive nutritional regimen in sick very low birthweight infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1997;77(1):F4–11.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Senterre T, Rigo J. Reduction in postnatal cumulative nutritional deficit and improvement of growth in extremely preterm infants. Acta Paediatr. 2012;101(2):e64–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Heird WC, Dell RB, Driscoll JM, Jr., Grebin B, Winters RW. Metabolic acidosis resulting from intravenous alimentation mixtures containing synthetic amino acids. N Engl J Med. 1972;287(19):943–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Jadhav P, Parimi PS, Kalhan SC. Parenteral amino acid and metabolic acidosis in premature infants. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2007;31(4):278–83.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Kermorvant-Duchemin E, Iacobelli S, Eleni-Dit-Trolli S, Bonsante F, Kermorvant C, Sarfati G, et al. Early chloride intake does not parallel that of sodium in extremely-low-birth-weight infants and may impair neonatal outcomes. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2012;54(5):613–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Ridout E, Melara D, Rottinghaus S, Thureen PJ. Blood urea nitrogen concentration as a marker of amino-acid intolerance in neonates with birthweight less than 1250 g. J Perinatol. 2005;25(2):130–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. George I, Mekahli D, Rayyan M, Levtchenko E, Allegaert K. Postnatal trends in creatinemia and its covariates in extremely low birth weight (ELBW) neonates. Pediatr Nephrol. 2011;26(10):1843–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Mitanchez D. Glucose regulation in preterm newborn infants. Horm Res. 2007;68(6):265–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Tsang RC, Uauy R, Koletzko B, Zlotkin SH. Summary of reasonnable nutrient intakes for preterm infants. In: Tsang RC, Uauy R, Koletzko B, Zlotkin SH, editors. Nutrition of the preterm infant. Cincinnati: Digital Educating; 2005. pp. 415–8.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Ogilvy-Stuart AL, Beardsall K. Management of hyperglycaemia in the preterm infant. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2010;95(2):F126–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Rigo J, Senterre T. Parenteral nutrition. In: Buenocore G, Bracci R, Weindling M, editors. Neonatology a practical approach to neonatal diseases. Italia: Springer-Verlag; 2011. pp. 311–9.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Waitzberg DL, Torrinhas RS, Jacintho TM. New parenteral lipid emulsions for clinical use. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2006;30(4):351–67.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Vlaardingerbroek H, Veldhorst MA, Spronk S, van den Akker CH, van Goudoever JB. Parenteral lipid administration to very-low-birth-weight infants–early introduction of lipids and use of new lipid emulsions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96(2):255–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Lapillonne A. Enteral and parenteral lipid requirements of preterm infants. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2014;110:82–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Koletzko B. Intravenous lipid emulsions for infants: when and which? Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96(2):225–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. D’Ascenzo R, D’Egidio S, Angelini L, Bellagamba MP, Manna M, Pompilio A, et al. Parenteral nutrition of preterm infants with a lipid emulsion containing 10 % fish oil: effect on plasma lipids and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Pediatr. 2011;159(1):33–8. e1.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Pawlik D, Lauterbach R, Turyk E. Fish-oil fat emulsion supplementation may reduce the risk of severe retinopathy in VLBW infants. Pediatrics. 2011;127(2):223–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Skouroliakou M, Konstantinou D, Koutri K, Kakavelaki C, Stathopoulou M, Antoniadi M, et al. A double-blind, randomized clinical trial of the effect of omega-3 fatty acids on the oxidative stress of preterm neonates fed through parenteral nutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2010;64(9):940–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Tomsits E, Pataki M, Tolgyesi A, Fekete G, Rischak K, Szollar L. Safety and efficacy of a lipid emulsion containing a mixture of soybean oil, medium-chain triglycerides, olive oil, and fish oil: a randomised, double-blind clinical trial in premature infants requiring parenteral nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2010;51(4):514–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Lapillonne A, Fellous L, Kermorvant-Duchemin E. Use of parenteral lipid emulsions in French neonatal ICUs. Nutr Clin Pract. 2011;26(6):672–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Borum PR. Carnitine in parenteral nutrition. Gastroenterology. 2009;137(5 Suppl):S129–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Cairns PA, Stalker DJ. Carnitine supplementation of parenterally fed neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;4(4):CD000950.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Fusch C, Jochum F. Water, sodium, potassium and chloride. In: Tsang RC, Uauy R, Koletzko B, Zlotkin SH, editors. Nutrition of the preterm infant. Cincinnati: Digital Educating; 2005. pp. 201–44.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Blanco CL, Falck A, Green BK, Cornell JE, Gong AK. Metabolic responses to early and high protein supplementation in a randomized trial evaluating the prevention of hyperkalemia in extremely low birth weight infants. J Pediatr. 2008;153(4):535–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. MacRae Dell K. Fluids, electrolytes, and acid-bas homeostasis. In: Martin RR, Fanaroff AA, Walsh MC, editors. Fanaroff and martin’s neonatal-perinatal medicine. 9th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier Mosby; 2011. pp. 669–708.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Baraton L, Ancel PY, Flamant C, Orsonneau JL, Darmaun D, Roze JC. Impact of changes in serum sodium levels on 2-year neurologic outcomes for very preterm neonates. Pediatrics. 2009;124(4):e655–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Barnette AR, Myers BJ, Berg CS, Inder TE. Sodium intake and intraventricular hemorrhage in the preterm infant. Ann Neurol. 2011;67(6):817–23.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Gawlowski Z, Aladangady N, Coen PG. Hypernatraemia in preterm infants born at less than 27 weeks gestation. J Paediatr Child Health. 2006;42(12):771–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Lim WH, Lien R, Chiang MC, Fu RH, Lin JJ, Chu SM, et al. Hypernatremia and grade III/IV intraventricular hemorrhage among extremely low birth weight infants. J Perinatol. 2011;31(3):193–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Bell EF, Acarregui MJ. Restricted versus liberal water intake for preventing morbidity and mortality in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;12(1):CD000503.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Gruskay J, Costarino AT, Polin RA, Baumgart S. Nonoliguric hyperkalemia in the premature infant weighing less than 1000 grams. J Pediatr. 1988;113(2):381–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Mildenberger E, Versmold HT. Pathogenesis and therapy of non-oliguric hyperkalaemia of the premature infant. Eur J Pediatr. 2002;161(8):415–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Bonsante F, Iacobelli S, Chantegret C, Martin D, Gouyon JB. The effect of parenteral nitrogen and energy intake on electrolyte balance in the preterm infant. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2011;65(10):1088–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Iacobelli S, Bonsante F, Vintejoux A, Gouyon JB. Standardized parenteral nutrition in preterm infants: early impact on fluid and electrolyte balance. Neonatology. 2010;98(1):84–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Ichikawa G, Watabe Y, Suzumura H, Sairenchi T, Muto T, Arisaka O. Hypophosphatemia in small for gestational age extremely low birth weight infants receiving parenteral nutrition in the first week after birth. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2012;25(3–4):317–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Pieltain C, Rigo J. Early mineral metabolism in very-low-birth-weight infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2014;58(4):393.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Mizumoto H, Mikami M, Oda H, Hata D. Refeeding syndrome in a small-for-dates micro-preemie receiving early parenteral nutrition. Pediatr Int. 2012;54(5):715–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Christmann V, de Grauw AM, Visser R, Matthijsse RP, van Goudoever JB, van Heijst AF. Early postnatal calcium and phosphorus metabolism in preterm infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2014;58(4):398–403.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Moltu SJ, Strommen K, Blakstad EW, Almaas AN, Westerberg AC, Braekke K, et al. Enhanced feeding in very-low-birth-weight infants may cause electrolyte disturbances and septicemia–a randomized, controlled trial. Clin Nutr. 2012;32(2):207–12.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Rigo J, Senterre T. Intrauterine-like growth rates can be achieved with premixed parenteral nutrition solution in preterm infants. J Nutr. 2013;143(12 Suppl):2066S–2070S.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Ekblad H, Kero P, Takala J. Slow sodium acetate infusion in the correction of metabolic acidosis in premature infants. Am J Dis Child. 1985;139(7):708–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. McCague A, Dermendjieva M, Hutchinson R, Wong DT, Dao N. Sodium acetate infusion in critically ill trauma patients for hyperchloremic acidosis. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2011;19:24.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Kalhoff H, Diekmann L, Kunz C, Stock GJ, Manz F. Alkali therapy versus sodium chloride supplement in low birthweight infants with incipient late metabolic acidosis. Acta Paediatr. 1997;86(1):96–101.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Peters O, Ryan S, Matthew L, Cheng K, Lunn J. Randomised controlled trial of acetate in preterm neonates receiving parenteral nutrition. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1997;77(1):F12–5.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Richards CE, Drayton M, Jenkins H, Peters TJ. Effect of different chloride infusion rates on plasma base excess during neonatal parenteral nutrition. Acta Paediatr. 1993;82(8):678–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Bohrer D, Oliveira SM, Garcia SC, Nascimento PC, Carvalho LM. Aluminum loading in preterm neonates revisited. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2010;51(2):237–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Poole RL, Hintz SR, Mackenzie NI, Kerner JA, Jr. Aluminum exposure from pediatric parenteral nutrition: meeting the new FDA regulation. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2008;32(3):242–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Rigo J, Mohamed MW, de Curtis M. Disorders of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium metabolism. In: Martin RJ, Fanaroff AA, Walsh MC, editors. Fanaroff and martin neonatal-perinatal medicine. 9th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier Mosby; 2011. pp. 1523–55.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Pieltain C, de Halleux V, Senterre T, Rigo J. Prematurity and bone health. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2013;106:181–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Chollat C, Enser M, Houivet E, Provost D, Benichou J, Marpeau L, et al. School-age outcomes following a randomized controlled trial of magnesium sulfate for neuroprotection of preterm infants. J Pediatr. 2014;165(2):398–400.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Rouse DJ, Gibbins KJ. Magnesium sulfate for cerebral palsy prevention. Semin Perinatol. 2013;37(6):414–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Greene HL, Hambidge KM, Schanler R, Tsang RC. Guidelines for the use of vitamins, trace elements, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus in infants and children receiving total parenteral nutrition: report of the subcommittee on pediatric parenteral nutrient requirements from the committee on clinical practice issues of the American society for clinical nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1988;48(5):1324–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Mimouni FB, Mandel D, Lubetzky R, Senterre T. Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and vitamin d requirements of the preterm infant. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2014;110:140–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Schanler RJ, Shulman RJ, Prestridge LL. Parenteral nutrient needs of very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr. 1994;125(6 Pt 1):961–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Domellof M. Nutritional care of premature infants: microminerals. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2014;110:121–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Leaf A, Lansdowne Z. Vitamins–conventional uses and new insights. World Rev Nutr Diet. 2014;110:152–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Darlow BA, Graham PJ. Vitamin A supplementation to prevent mortality and short- and long-term morbidity in very low birthweight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;10(10):CD000501.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Bell EF, Hansen NI, Brion LP, Ehrenkranz RA, Kennedy KA, Walsh MC, et al. Serum tocopherol levels in very preterm infants after a single dose of vitamin E at birth. Pediatrics. 2013;132(6):e1626–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Kositamongkol S, Suthutvoravut U, Chongviriyaphan N, Feungpean B, Nuntnarumit P. Vitamin A and E status in very low birth weight infants. J Perinatol. 2011;31(7):471–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Meyer S, Gortner L. Early postnatal additional high-dose oral vitamin A supplementation versus placebo for 28 days for preventing bronchopulmonary dysplasia or death in extremely low birth weight infants. Neonatology. 2014;105(3):182–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Laborie S, Denis A, Dassieu G, Bedu A, Tourneux P, Pinquier D, et al. Shielding parenteral nutrition solutions from light: a randomized controlled trial. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2014 doi: 0148607114537523. [Epub ahead of print].

    Google Scholar 

  111. Lapillonne A, Fellous L, Mokthari M, Kermorvant-Duchemin E. Parenteral nutrition objectives for very low birth weight infants: results of a national survey. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;48(5):618–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Poole RL, Kerner JA. Practical steps in prescribing intravenous feeding. In: Yu VYH, MacMahon RA, editors. Itravenous feeding of the neonates. Edward Arnold, London; 1992. pp. 259–64.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Rigo J, Marlowe ML, Bonnot D, Senterre T, Lapillonne A, Kermorvant-Duchemin E, et al. Benefits of a new pediatric triple-chamber bag for parenteral nutrition in preterm infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2012;54(2):210–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Riskin A, Shiff Y, Shamir R. Parenteral nutrition in neonatology—to standardize or individualize? Isr Med Assoc J. 2006;8(9):641–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Bischoff SC, Kester L, Meier R, et al. Organisation, regulations, preparation and logistics of parenteral nutrition in hospitals and homes; the role of the nutrition support team. Ger Med Sci. 2009; 7: Doc20, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Muhlebach S, Franken C, Stanga Z. Practical handling of AIO admixtures. Ger Med Sci. 2009; 7: Doc18, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Gynaecology—Obstetrics and Perinatal Medicine, Rome, Italy

    Gianluca Terrin

  2. Department of Pediatrics, Neonatology Unit, Policlinico Umberto I, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy

    Gianluca Terrin & Mario De Curtis

  3. Service Universitaire de Néonatologie, CHU de Liège, University of Liège, CHR de la Citadelle, Boulevard du Douzième de Ligne, 1, 4000, Liège, Belgium

    Thibault Senterre & Jacques Rigo

Authors
  1. Thibault Senterre
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gianluca Terrin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mario De Curtis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jacques Rigo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Thibault Senterre .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA

    Stefano Guandalini

  2. Clinical Director Child Health King’s College Hospital, Professor and Director Pediatric Liver, GI and Nutrition Center, London, United Kingdom

    Anil Dhawan

  3. Department of Pediatrics, Hebrew University Hadassah Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel

    David Branski

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Senterre, T., Terrin, G., De Curtis, M., Rigo, J. (2016). Parenteral Nutrition in Premature Infants. In: Guandalini, S., Dhawan, A., Branski, D. (eds) Textbook of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17169-2_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17169-2_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-17168-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-17169-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation