Abstract
The target group and vulnerable group benchmarks were meant to provide additional protection to consumers, addressing the concern that vulnerable consumers were not sufficiently protected by the average consumer benchmark. Yet, to what extent do these benchmarks really address consumer vulnerability? It is important in this context to note that the Directive views vulnerability in terms of groups. From a behavioural perspective, this view of consumer vulnerability is problematic. Studies on consumer vulnerability emphasise that vulnerability is highly context-specific and that this phenomenon is difficult to capture in terms of well-delineated groups. These studies show that some groups (such as younger children) may indeed be generally more vulnerable than other groups, but for most groups this is highly dependent on the type of situation. Since vulnerability is highly context specific and difficult to capture in terms of groups, both the target group and vulnerable group benchmark are applicable only in a limited number of cases, which makes it questionable whether these benchmarks can really address vulnerability.
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Notes
- 1.
See paragraphs 2.6, 2.7 and 4.4 of this book.
- 2.
Large parts of this chapter have been published earlier in the form of an article in Zeitschrift für Europäisches Unternehmens- und Verbraucherrecht/Journal of European consumer and Market Law. See B Duivenvoorde, ‘The protection of vulnerable consumers under the Unfair Commercial Practices Directive’ (2013) Zeitschrift für Europäisches Unternehmens- und Verbraucherrecht/ Journal of European consumer and market law 69. This chapter presents the main insights from behavioural sciences on consumer vulnerability, but by no means offers an exhaustive overview.
- 3.
SEC (2009) 1666, pp. 29–30. For example, the Guidelines state that ‘consumers who need to use wheelchairs’ might be a vulnerable group in relation to advertising claims about ease of access to a holiday destination or entertainment venue. Although it is clear that these claims are relevant to this group and that this group is likely to be exposed more to these types of claims, this group is not likely to be less able to deal with those claims than other consumers would be to claims that are relevant to them.
- 4.
S Baker, J Gentry and T Rittenburg, ‘Building understanding of the domain of consumer vulnerability’ (2005) Journal of macromarketing 128.
- 5.
Consumentenautoriteit, now Autoriteit Consument & Markt (Authority for Consumers & Markets).
- 6.
Office of Fair Trading 2006, Consumentenautoriteit/Intomart GfK 2008, Federal Trade Commission/Synovate 2007, Competition Bureau Canada/Environics Research Group 2008.
- 7.
See also P Mansfield and M Pinto, ‘Consumer vulnerability and credit card knowledge among developmentally disabled citizens’ (2008) Journal of consumer affairs 425.
- 8.
This is not to say that vulnerability of elderly consumers cannot be taken into account, but it appears to be wise to think about whether they are indeed generally more vulnerable than others in relation to a particular practice. Group-based vulnerability may still be a useful concept, but situational factors in relation to vulnerability should be taken into account in order to actually address vulnerability.
- 9.
See on individual differences between elderly consumers also C Yoon and C Cole, ‘Aging and consumer behavior’, in C Haugtvedt, P Herr and F Kardes (eds), Handbook of consumer psychology (New York/London, Routledge, 2008) 4 and onwards.
- 10.
D Roedder John, ‘Stages of consumer socialization, the development of consumer knowledge, skills and values from childhood to adolescence’, in Haugtvedt/Herr/Kardes (Handbook of consumer psychology, 2008) 1103.
- 11.
D Roedder John, ‘Consumer Socialization of children: a retrospective look at twenty-five years of research’ (1999) Journal of consumer affairs 183.
- 12.
D Roedder John, ‘Stages of consumer socialization, the development of consumer knowledge, skills and values from childhood to adolescence’, in Haugtvedt/Herr/Kardes (Handbook of consumer psychology, 2008) 226. See also D Roedder John, ‘Consumer Socialization of children: a retrospective look at twenty-five years of research’ (1999) Journal of consumer affairs 183, E Rozendaal, M Buijze and P Valkenburg, ‘Children’s understanding of advertisers’ persuasive tactics’ (2011) International journal of advertising 329.
- 13.
D Boush, M Friestad and G Rose, ‘Adolescent skepticism toward TV advertising and knowledge of advertiser tactics’ (1994) Journal of consumer research 165, D Roedder John, ‘Consumer Socialization of children: a retrospective look at twenty-five years of research’ (1999) Journal of consumer affairs 183. See on the topic of adolescents’ skepticism towards advertising also T Mangleburg and T Bristol, ‘Socialization and adolescents’ skepticism toward advertising’ (1998) Journal of advertising, 11.
- 14.
N Capon and D Kuhn, ‘A developmental study of consumer information-processing strategies’ (1980) Journal of consumer research 225, D Roedder John and C Cole, ‘Age differences in information processing: understanding deficits in young and elderly consumers’ (1986) Journal of consumer research 297, D Roedder John, ‘Stages of consumer socialization, the development of consumer knowledge, skills and values from childhood to adolescence’, in Haugtvedt/Herr/Kardes (Handbook of consumer psychology, 2008) 1103.
- 15.
See also the discussion on consumers’ knowledge in paragraph 9.4.2 of this book.
- 16.
D Roedder John and C Cole, ‘Age differences in information processing: understanding deficits in young and elderly consumers’ (1986) Journal of consumer research 297 and D Roedder John, ‘Consumer Socialization of children: a retrospective look at twenty-five years of research’ (1999) Journal of consumer affairs 183.
- 17.
D Roedder John and C Cole, ‘Age differences in information processing: understanding deficits in young and elderly consumers’ (1986) Journal of consumer research 297.
- 18.
N Capon and D Kuhn, ‘A developmental study of consumer information-processing strategies’ (1980) Journal of consumer research 225 and D Roedder John, ‘Stages of consumer socialization, the development of consumer knowledge, skills and values from childhood to adolescence’, in Haugtvedt/Herr/Kardes (Handbook of consumer psychology, 2008) 1103.
- 19.
- 20.
D Roedder John, ‘Consumer Socialization of children: a retrospective look at twenty-five years of research’ (1999) Journal of consumer affairs 183.
- 21.
Idem. This is also indicated by a recent study conducted by UK consumer organisation ‘Which?’. This study indicates that people under 30 score considerably worse in terms of ‘consumer literacy’. See Which?, Consumer literacy: capabilities and the real consumer (2013).
- 22.
M Friestad and P Wright, ‘The persuasion knowledge model: how people cope with persuasion attempts’ (1994) Journal of consumer research 7.
- 23.
See, for example, S Calvert, ‘Children as consumers: advertising and marketing’ (2008) The future of children 205.
- 24.
- 25.
This phenomenon applies to people in general, but may well be sronger for adolescents.
- 26.
D Roedder John and C Cole, ‘Age differences in information processing: understanding deficits in young and elderly consumers’ (1986) Journal of consumer research 297, C Cole and S Balasubramanian, ‘Age differences in consumers’ search for information: public policy considerations’ (1993) Journal of consumer research 157, P Sorce, ‘Cognitive competence of older consumers’ (1995) Psychology and marketing 467, C Yoon and C Cole, ‘Aging and consumer behavior’, in C Haugtvedt, P Herr and F Kardes (eds), Handbook of consumer psychology (New York/London, Routledge, 2008) 247–270 and G Moschis, J Mosteller and C Fatt, ‘Research frontiers on older consumers’ vulnerability’ (2011) Journal of consumer affairs 467.
- 27.
C Cole and G Gaeth, ‘Cognitive and age-related differences in the ability to use nutritional information in a complex environment’ (1990) Journal of marketing research 175, C Yoon, C Cole and M Lee, ‘Consumer decision making and aging: current knowledge and future directions’ (2009) Journal of consumer psychology 6, L Phillips and B Sternthal, ‘Age differences in information processing: a perspective on the aged consumer’ (1977) Journal of marketing research 477, C Yoon and C Cole, ‘Aging and consumer behavior’, in C Haugtvedt, P Herr and F Kardes (eds), Handbook of consumer psychology (New York/London, Routledge, 2008) 247–270.
- 28.
D Roedder John and C Cole, ‘Age differences in information processing: understanding deficits in young and elderly consumers’ (1986) Journal of consumer research 297.
- 29.
L Phillips and B Sternthal, ‘Age differences in information processing: a perspective on the aged consumer’ (1977) Journal of marketing research 477.
- 30.
C Yoon, C Cole and M Lee, ‘Consumer decision making and aging: current knowledge and future directions’ (2009) Journal of consumer psychology 6, L Phillips and B Sternthal, ‘Age differences in information processing: a perspective on the aged consumer’ (1977) Journal of marketing research 444, C Cole and G Gaeth, ‘Cognitive and age-related differences in the ability to use nutritional information in a complex environment’ (1990) Journal of marketing research 176 and C Yoon and C Cole, ‘Aging and consumer behavior’, in C Haugtvedt, P Herr and F Kardes (eds), Handbook of consumer psychology (New York/London, Routledge, 2008) 247–270.
- 31.
D Roedder John and C Cole, ‘Age differences in information processing: understanding deficits in young and elderly consumers’ (1986) Journal of consumer research 297. See also C Yoon and C Cole, ‘Aging and consumer behavior’, in C Haugtvedt, P Herr and F Kardes (eds), Handbook of consumer psychology (New York/London, Routledge, 2008) 247.
- 32.
G Moschis, J Mosteller and C Fatt, ‘Research frontiers on older consumers’ vulnerability’ (2011) Journal of consumer affairs 470.
- 33.
Y Kang and N Ridgway, ‘The importance of consumer market interactions as a form of social support for elderly consumers’ (1996) Journal of public policy and marketing 110 and J Lee and H Soberon-Ferrer, ‘Consumer vulnerability to fraud: influencing factors’ (1997) Journal of consumer affairs 70.
- 34.
J Lee and L Geistfeld, ‘Elderly consumers’ receptiveness to telemarketing fraud’ (1999) Journal of public policy and marketing 209.
- 35.
Y Kang and N Ridgway, ‘The importance of consumer market interactions as a form of social support for elderly consumers’ (1996) Journal of public policy and marketing 108 and J Lee and L Geistfeld, ‘Elderly consumers’ receptiveness to telemarketing fraud’ (1999) Journal of public policy and marketing 208.
- 36.
- 37.
Y Kang and N Ridgway, ‘The importance of consumer market interactions as a form of social support for elderly consumers’ (1996) Journal of public policy and marketing 108 and Y Kim, J Kang, M Kim, ‘The relationships among family and social interaction, loneliness, mall shopping motivation, and mall spending of older consumers’ (2005), Psychology and marketing 995.
- 38.
J Lee and H Soberon-Ferrer, ‘Consumer vulnerability to fraud: influencing factors’ (1997) Journal of consumer affairs 70. This hypothesis is supported by an experiment by Lee and Geistfeld, which shows that elderly consumers are generally more willing to listen to telemarketers, see J Lee and L Geistfeld, ‘Elderly consumers’ receptiveness to telemarketing fraud’ (1999) Journal of public policy and marketing 208.
- 39.
J Lee and L Geistfeld, ‘Elderly consumers’ receptiveness to telemarketing fraud’ (1999) Journal of public policy and marketing 208.
- 40.
These findings are supported by earlier studies in the United States, see G Moschis, J Mosteller and C Fatt, ‘Research frontiers on older consumers’ vulnerability’ (2011) Journal of consumer affairs 472–473. The Dutch study did not find any relationship between age and being a victim of unfair commercial practices, see Consumentenautoriteit/Intomart GfK 2008.
- 41.
Office of Fair Trading 2006, p. 28.
- 42.
C Yoon, C Cole and M Lee, ‘Consumer decision making and aging: current knowledge and future directions’ (2009) Journal of consumer psychology 2, G Moschis, J Mosteller and C Fatt, ‘Research frontiers on older consumers’ vulnerability’ (2011) Journal of consumer affairs 474–475 and C Yoon and C Cole, ‘Aging and consumer behavior’, in C Haugtvedt, P Herr and F Kardes (eds), Handbook of consumer psychology (New York/London, Routledge, 2008) 247. Another possible factor could be differences between generations (i.e., cohort differences). See also the study by UK consumer organisation ‘Which?’, in relation to consumer literacy. See Which?, Consumer literacy: capabilities and the real consumer (2013).
- 43.
SEC (2009) 1666, 30.
- 44.
H Gleitman, J Gross and D Reisberg, Psychology (New York, London, Norton 2011) 644 and onwards.
- 45.
SEC (2009) 1666, 30.
- 46.
See also paragraph 2.7 of this book.
- 47.
S Baker, J Gentry and T Rittenburg, ‘Building understanding of the domain of consumer vulnerability’ (2005) Journal of macromarketing 128.
- 48.
Consumentenautoriteit/Intomart GfK 2008, p. 51 and Federal Trade Commission/Synovate 2007, p. 28.
- 49.
Office of Fair Trading 2006, p. 27.
- 50.
Ibid.
- 51.
J Lee and H Soberon-Ferrer, ‘Consumer vulnerability to fraud: influencing factors’ (1997) Journal of consumer affairs 85–86.
- 52.
- 53.
See Consumentenautoriteit/Intomart GfK 2008, p. 49 and Federal Trade Commission/Synovate 2007, pp. 28–29.
- 54.
See Consumentenautoriteit/Intomart GfK 2008, p. 49 and Office of Fair Trading 2006, p. 30. For the UK study it must be pointed out that this difference is only very slight. The difference between these studies may, like for gender, be explained by the different commercial practices included in the studies.
- 55.
S Baker, J Gentry and T Rittenburg, ‘Building understanding of the domain of consumer vulnerability’ (2005) Journal of macromarketing 128.
- 56.
See also J Trzaskowski, ‘The Unfair Commercial Practices Directive and vulnerable consumers’ (Paper for the Conference of the International association of consumer law in Sydney, 2013).
References
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Boush, C, Friestad, M and Rose, G, ‘Adolescent skepticism toward TV advertising and knowledge of advertiser tactics’ (1994) Journal of consumer research 165.
Calvert, S, ‘Children as consumers: advertising and marketing’ (2008) The future of children 205.
Capon, N and Kuhn, D, ‘A developmental study of consumer information-processing strategies’ (1980) Journal of consumer research 225.
Cole, C and Balasubramanian, S, ‘Age differences in consumers’ search for information: public policy considerations’ (1993) Journal of consumer research 157.
Cole, C and Gaeth, G, ‘Cognitive and age-related differences in the ability to use nutritional information in a complex environment’ (1990) Journal of marketing research 175.
Duivenvoorde, B, ‘The protection of vulnerable consumers under the Unfair Commercial Practices Directive’ (2013) Zeitschrift für Europäisches Unternehmens- und Verbraucherrecht / Journal of European consumer and market law 69.
Friestad, M and Wright, P, ‘The persuasion knowledge model: how people cope with persuasion attempts’ (1994) Journal of consumer research 1.
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Lee, J and Geistfeld, L, ‘Elderly consumers’ receptiveness to telemarketing fraud’ (1999) Journal of public policy and marketing 208.
Lee, J and Soberon-Ferrer, H ‘Consumer vulnerability to fraud: influencing factors’ (1997) Journal of consumer affairs 70.
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Duivenvoorde, B. (2015). The Protection of Vulnerable Groups from a Behavioural Perspective. In: The Consumer Benchmarks in the Unfair Commercial Practices Directive. Studies in European Economic Law and Regulation, vol 5. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13924-1_10
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