Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Safety and Protection of Humanitarian Workers

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Humanitarian Challenge

  • 1023 Accesses

Abstract

Humanitarian aid workers were always vulnerable because they work in dangerous environment (often in the framework of armed conflicts or instances of violence) but recently it can be observed that aid workers are targets of premeditated attacks, which raises once again the question about the scope of protection of humanitarian workers and ways to improve it.

The aims of the article are the following: firstly, to describe main features of humanitarian space in which aid workers perform their duties (i.e. assess the scale of accidental deaths and directed attacks against aid workers; to indicate what is the impact of the involvement of military officers in providing humanitarian aid, to show dangers related with politicization of humanitarian aid), secondly to assess the scope of legal protection of aid workers which entails indication what is a status of humanitarian worker according to international law (i.e. Human Rights law and International Humanitarian Law) and to answer if their activities can be perceived as taking part in hostilities and in case of affirmative answer to indicate if they can be deprived of their protection; thirdly to indicate what kind of measures are undertaken to improve protection of humanitarian workers (i.e. codes of conduct, conventions, trainings).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. 1.

    Victims of attacks against humanitarian personnel: in 2005—173, in 2006—240, in 2007—220, in 2008—278, in 2009—295, in 2010—245, in 2011—308, and in 2012—274.

  2. 2.

    Report dated 19 January 1998: Respect for and Protection of the Personnel of Humanitarian Organizations, Preparatory document drafted by the International Committee of the Red Cross for the first periodical meeting on international humanitarian law Geneva, 19–23 January 1998.

  3. 3.

    Inter alia: European Union Force Chad/CAR, European Union Force–Libya.

  4. 4.

    See Article 4 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 16 Dec. 1966, UNTS vol. 999, p. 171. Compare with Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 4 Nov. 1950, UNTS vol. 213, p. 221.

  5. 5.

    See Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection of 2006 (A/61/10). It is interesting to remember in this context that in the initial stages of work of the International Law Commission on the issues of state responsibility, the special rapporteur F.V. Garcia Amador in his reports focused specifically on the question of the responsibility of the State for injuries caused in its territory to the person or property of aliens. See e.g. UN Doc. A/CN.4/96, A/CN.4/106, A/CN.4/111.

  6. 6.

    The text of IDRL Guidelines is available on http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/idrl/idrl-guidelines/ (31.05.2013). According to definitions included in the IDRL Guidelines, “disaster” means “a serious disruption of the functioning of society, which poses a significant, widespread threat to human life, health, property or the environment, whether arising from accident, nature or human activity, whether developing suddenly or as the result of long-term processes, but excluding armed conflict.”

  7. 7.

    See also A/RES/63/139, A/RES/63/141, A/RES/63/137 (2008) in which UN General Assembly encouraged states to make use of IDRL Guidelines.

  8. 8.

    According to definitions included in the IDRL Guidelines, “Disaster relief” means goods and services provided to meet the immediate needs of disaster-affected communities; “Initial recovery assistance” means goods and services intended to restore or improve the pre-disaster living conditions of disaster-affected communities, including initiatives to increase resilience and reduce risk, provided for an initial period of time, as determined by the affected State, after the immediate needs of disaster-affected communities have been met. IDRL Guidelines uses terms like “humanitarian relief”, “humanitarian organization” but they do not provide definitions of these notions.

  9. 9.

    See e.g. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace (A/47/277—S/24111) of 17 June 1992. See also S/1999/957 of 8 Sept. 1998, pp. 21–22.

  10. 10.

    See e.g. GA resolutions A/RES/52/167 (1997), A/RES/53/87 (1998), A/RES/54/192 (1999), A/RES/55/175 (2000), A/RES/56/89 (2001), A/RES/56/217 (2001), A/RES/57/28 (2002), A/RES/57/155 (2002), A/RES/58/122 (2003), A/RES/59/211 (2004), A/RES/60/123 (2005), A/RES/61/133 (2006), A/RES/62/95 (2007), A/RES/63/138 (2008), A/RES/64/77 (2009), A/RES/65/132 (2010), A/RES/66/117 (2011), A/RES/67/85 (2012).

  11. 11.

    See e.g. S/RES/1296 (2000), S/RES/1265 (1999), S/RES/1502 (2003); S/RES/1674 (2006), S/RES/1894 (2009).

  12. 12.

    A/RES/49/59, 9 Dec. 1994. Convention entered into force on 15 Jan. 1999. As to the circumstances surrounding the work towards the Convention.

  13. 13.

    Article 7.

  14. 14.

    Article 8.

  15. 15.

    Article 9.

  16. 16.

    Articles 10–18.

  17. 17.

    Article 1.

  18. 18.

    A/55/637 (2002), para. 15.

  19. 19.

    Ibidem.

  20. 20.

    Experts point out that the purpose of this reservation was to preclude the application of the Convention in situations in which international humanitarian law applies.

  21. 21.

    A/RES/377 (V) (1950).

  22. 22.

    See A/55/637, S/1999/957 (1999), A/54/619, S/1999/957 (1999). See also World Summit Outcome 2005, A/RES/60/1, para. 167.

  23. 23.

    Protocol (A/RES/60/42, 2005) entered into force on 19 Aug. 2010. There are 28 states parties to the Protocol (as of 31 May 2013).

  24. 24.

    However, the IDRL Guidelines will not apply: the option of their applicability in situations of armed conflict has been barred in advance. See note 7.

  25. 25.

    See List of Customary Rules of International Humanitarian Law based on the International Committee of the Red Cross study on customary international humanitarian law (CIHL).

  26. 26.

    UNTS, vol. 1975, pp. 31 ff.

  27. 27.

    UNTS, vol. 1125, pp. 3 ff.

  28. 28.

    Article 69, para. 1 and Article 70, para. 1 AP I.

  29. 29.

    See e.g. Article 9 of the GC I, GC II, GC III, Article 10 GC IV.

  30. 30.

    Ibidem.

  31. 31.

    See e.g. Article 12 GC I.

  32. 32.

    Article 27 GC I.

  33. 33.

    Article 13 AP I.

  34. 34.

    Article 13, para. 2 AP I.

  35. 35.

    Article 13, para. 1 AP I.

  36. 36.

    Article 16 and 17 AP I. See also Rule 26 CIHL.

  37. 37.

    Article 24 GC I and Article 8 (c) AP I.

  38. 38.

    Ibidem.

  39. 39.

    Article 26 GC I.

  40. 40.

    Article 27 GC I and Article 9, para. 2 AP I.

  41. 41.

    Article 24 GC I. See also Rule 25 CIHL.

  42. 42.

    Article 25 GC I.

  43. 43.

    Article 28 GC I.

  44. 44.

    Article 32 GC I.

  45. 45.

    Article 29 GC I.

  46. 46.

    It is immaterial whether the ships are military hospital ships, National Red Cross hospital ships, or ships of recognized relief societies or private persons of neutral countries, on condition that they have placed themselves under the control of one of the parties to the conflict, with previous consent of their own governments and with authorization of the party to the conflict concerned, Article 22–25 GC II.

  47. 47.

    Article 36 GC II.

  48. 48.

    Article 15 AP I.

  49. 49.

    Article 20 GC IV.

  50. 50.

    Article 17 AP I.

  51. 51.

    Article 39 GC II.

  52. 52.

    Article 8 (d) AP I.

  53. 53.

    Article 24 GC I. See also Rule 27 CIHL.

  54. 54.

    Article 28 GC I.

  55. 55.

    Article 17, para. 2 AP I.

  56. 56.

    See e.g. Articles 38–44 GC I.

  57. 57.

    Article 63 GC IV.

  58. 58.

    Article 71, para. 1 AP I.

  59. 59.

    Article 71, para. 1 AP I. Compare also with Article 142 GC IV (duly accredited agents).

  60. 60.

    Article 71, para. 2 AP I. See also Rule 31 CIHL.

  61. 61.

    Article 71, para. 4 AP I.

  62. 62.

    However, it is important to note that protection under GC IV is not granted to every civilian, but only to those caught up in occupied territory or those who found themselves in the territory of the enemy. Geneva Conventions therefore give no protection to local (national) humanitarian workers.

  63. 63.

    Article 9 AP II.

  64. 64.

    Rule 31 CIHL which states: “Humanitarian relief personnel must be respected and protected [IAC/NIAC]”.

  65. 65.

    Compare Article 6 International Military Tribunal Charter and articles 50/51/130/147 GC and Article 85 AP I, and Rule 30 CIHL.

  66. 66.

    Article 8 (a) (i–iii) and (v–viii), Article 8 (b) (i) (iv) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court of 17 July 1998, UNTS, vol. 2187, pp. 3 ff.

  67. 67.

    Article 8 (b) (xxiv), ibidem.

  68. 68.

    Article 8 (c) (e).

  69. 69.

    See also S/Res/1502 (2003) in which SC reaffirmed that killing humanitarian aid workers is a war crime.

  70. 70.

    United Nations Security Coordinator (UNSECOORD), Minimum Operating Security Standards (MOSS), Policy Document, 1 July 2004.

  71. 71.

    In 2010 an independent research team, led by Jan Egeland, conducted interviews with 255 humanitarian practitioners and policymakers, surveyed over 1,100 national staff members, and carried out a desk-based review of organizational literature and case-based evidence.

  72. 72.

    Ibidem, p. 2.

  73. 73.

    The publication was based on anonymous surveys of national aid workers.

  74. 74.

    According to ICRC’s data concerning health-care workers, more than 80 % of the 900 or so security incidents recorded in 22 countries affected local health-care professionals, ICRC, Violent Incidents Affecting Health Care—January to December 2012, 15 May 2013, www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/report/2013-05-15-health-care-in-danger-incident-report.htm, accessed 1 September 2014.

  75. 75.

    Ibidem, p. 3; see also: Cote d’Ivoire: Local UN Staff Easy Targets in the Crisis.’ IRIN, UNOCHA, 24 January 2011.

  76. 76.

    In: The European Consensus on Humanitarian Aid - The humanitarian challenge, 2004.

  77. 77.

    Ibidem, p. 24.

  78. 78.

    ECHO Generic Security Guide for Humanitarian Organization, 2004.

  79. 79.

    A special risk assessment model was developed, based on comparing the likelihood of a security incident and the heaviness of its impact. The model helps identify the acceptable level of risk. Security Risk Management, NGO Approach, InterAction Security Unit, http://www.eisf.eu/resources/library/SRM.pdf, (4 June 2013).

  80. 80.

    SLT Survey Report, June 2009.

  81. 81.

    In the study underlying the report, 205 aid workers completed anonymous questionnaire surveys in the period 1 July—31 August 2009. Out of the total number of questionnaires, 149 were filled in by field-based staff. See: Saving Lives Together. A Review of Security Collaboration Between the United Nations and Humanitarian Actors on the Ground, Christian Aid 2010.

  82. 82.

    CHGR seek to ensure that humanitarian assistance should not be instrumentalized by political or military agendas. For further information, see: Saving Lives Together. A Framework for Improving Security Arrangements among IGOs, NGOs and the UN in the Field, endorsed by the Inter-Agency Security Committee in August 2011.

  83. 83.

    INSO was created by the staff of the Afghanistan NGO Safety Office with the support from Welthungerhilfe, ECHO, Swiss Development Cooperation, the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Norwegian Refugee Council.

References

  • Abild E (2009) Creating humanitarian space: a case study of Somalia, New Issues in Refugee Research, Research paper, No. 184

    Google Scholar 

  • Aid Worker Security Report (2011) Humanitarian Outcomes. https://aidworkersecurity.org/. Accessed 8 June 2013

  • Beauchamp S (2008) Defining the humanitarian space through public international law. On the Edges of Conflict. Working Paper

    Google Scholar 

  • Beigbeder Y (1991) The role and status of international humanitarian volunteers and organizations. The right and duty to humanitarian assistance. Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • Bessler M, Karouko S (2006) Civil-military relations in armed conflicts: a humanitarian perspective. J Civil-Military Humanitarian Relief Collab 3:4–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloom ET (1995) Protecting peacekeepers: the convention on the safety of united nations and associated personnel. Am J Int Law 89(3):621 ff

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bothe M (2002) War crimes. In: Cassese A, Gaeta P, Jones JRWD (eds) The Rome statute of the international criminal court. Commentary. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouvier A (1995) Convention on the safety of united nations and associated personnel: presentation and analysis. Int Rev Red Cross 309:638 ff

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruderlein C, Gassmann P (2006) Managing security risks in hazardous missions: the challenges of securing United Nations access to vulnerable groups. Harv Hum Rights J 19:63–93

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruger P (2009) ICRC operational security: staff safety in armed conflict and internal violence. Int Rev Red Cross 91(874)

    Google Scholar 

  • Burundi’s Law on Genocide, Crimes against Humanity and War Crimes (2003) http://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_cou_bi_rule31. Accessed 31 May 2013

  • Carle A, Chkam H (2006) Humanitarian action in the New Security Environment: policy and operational implications in Iraq. An HPG Background Paper

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter RC (2006) Innocent women and children: gender, norms and the protection of civilians. Ashgate, Hampshire

    Google Scholar 

  • Christianebo Urloyannis-Vrailas M (2005) The convention on the safety of united nations and associated personnel. Int Comp Law Q 44(3):561 ff

    Google Scholar 

  • Clause L (2010) International assignees at risk: employers have a duty of care for workers around the globe. HR Magazine

    Google Scholar 

  • Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties (1919) Report Presented to the Preliminary Peace Conference. 29 March 1919

    Google Scholar 

  • Cottier M (1999) Article 8. In: Triffterer O (ed) Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Nomos, Baden-Baden

    Google Scholar 

  • Dind P (1998) Security in ICRC field operations. Int Rev Red Cross 323:335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durham H, Wynn-Pope Ph (2011) Protecting the ‘Helpers’: humanitarians and health care workers during times of armed conflict. Yearbook Int Human Law 14:328, 330–331

    Google Scholar 

  • Ecroth K (2010) The protection of aid workers. Principled protection and humanitarian security in Darfur. The Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, Oslo, p 19

    Google Scholar 

  • Engdahl O (2002) Protection of personnel in peace operations: the role of the ‘Safety Convention’ against the background of general international law. Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden, p 205 ff.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewumbue-Monroe C (2006) Respect for international humanitarian law by armed non-state actors in Africa. Int Rev Red Cross 864:905–924

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fawcett J, Tanner V (2001) The security of national staff: towards good practices. InterAction, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Finucane C (2011) Humanitarian safety and security: obligations and responsibilities towards local implementing partners. Background Paper for Policy Recommendation Development

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank D (2001) The elements of war crimes. In: Lee RS, Friman H (eds) The international criminal court: elements of crimes and rules of procedure and evidence. Ardsley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaston EL (ed) (2012) Laws of war and 21st century conflict. International Debate Education Association, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Grombach-Wagner J (2007) An IHL/ICRC perspective on humanitarian space. Humanitarian Practice Network, HPG

    Google Scholar 

  • Hazan P, Berger JF (2004) Humanitarian action: from risk to real danger. The Magazine of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 1

    Google Scholar 

  • Henckaerts JM, Doswald-Beck L (2005) Customary international humanitarian law. Volume I: Rules. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • ICRC (1998) Respect for and Protection of the Personnel of Humanitarian Organizations. Report, Preparatory Document Drafted by the ICRC for the First Periodical Meeting on International Humanitarian Law, Geneva, 19–23 January 1998

    Google Scholar 

  • ICRC (2004) International Committee of the Red Cross Annual Report 2004. Message from the President, p 4

    Google Scholar 

  • ICRC (2011) 31st international conference 2011: resolution 2–4-year action plan. http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/resolution/31-international-conference-resolution-2-2011.htm. Accessed 31 May 2013

  • Inter-Agency Standing Committee (2008) Preserving humanitarian space, protection and security. In: IASC 70th working group meeting. Background Document

    Google Scholar 

  • International NGO Safety Organisation (2011) An introduction to the new charity dedicated towards providing safety and security services to humanitarian aid agencies

    Google Scholar 

  • International Review of the Red Cross (1998) First periodical meeting on international humanitarian law. Int Rev Red Cross 323:366–394

    Google Scholar 

  • International Review of the Red Cross (2013) Humanitarian debate: law, policy, action. Violence against health care part I: the problem and the law. Int Rev Red Cross 95(889):5–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khambatta M (2009), Humanitarian space and stability operations. Edges of Conflict Working Paper

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleffner JK (2008) Protection of the wounded, sick and shipwrecked. In: Fleck D (ed) The handbook of international humanitarian law, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Krähenbühl P (2004a) Statement: humanitarian security: “a Matter of Acceptance, Perception, Behaviour…” on 31 March. http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/5xsgwe.htm. Accessed 7 June 2013

  • Krähenbühl P (2004b) The ICRC’s approach to contemporary security challenges: a future for independent and neutral humanitarian action. Int Rev Red Cross 86(855):505–514

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Llewellyn H (2006) The optional protocol to the 1994 convention on the safety of united nations and associated personnel. Int Comp Law Q 55:719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mc Hugh G, Bessler M (2006) Humanitarian negotiations with armed groups. A manual for practitioners. United Nations, p 7

    Google Scholar 

  • Mikos-Skuza E (2013) Prawo ludności cywilnej do pomocy humanitarnej w świetle międzynarodowego prawa humanitarnego konfliktów zbrojnych. In: Mikos-Skuza E, Myszona-Kostrzewa K, Poczobut J (eds) Prawo międzynarodowe – teraźniejszość, perspektywy, dylematy. Księga Jubileuszowa Profesora Zdzisława Galickiego. Lex Wolters Kluwer Business, Warszawa

    Google Scholar 

  • OCHA (2011) To stay and deliver: good practice for humanitarians in complex security environments. Policy and Study Series

    Google Scholar 

  • Paludan A (2002) Final Report to the Inter Agency Standing Committee Working Group Staff Security Task Force

    Google Scholar 

  • Pictet J (ed) (1960) Commentary on the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, vol II, ICRC, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Pillod C, Sandoz I, Swinarski C, Zimmermann B (1987) Commentary on the additional protocols: of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • Pommier B (2011) The use of force to protect civilians and humanitarian action: the case of Libya and beyond. Int Rev Red Cross 884:24–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Primoratz I (2007) Civilian immunity in war. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Primoratz I (2012) Protecting civilians during violent conflict. Ashgate, Surrey

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramcharan BG (2006) Human rights in the field. Nijhoff, Leiden

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts DL (2006) Staying alive, safety and security guidelines for humanitarian volunteers in conflict areas. ICRC, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Samuel KLH, White ND (eds) (2012) Counter-terrorism and international law. Ashgate, Farnham

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandurski J (2000) Opieka dyplomatyczna jako narzędzie ochrony praw człowieka. In: Wiśniewski L (ed) Ochrona praw człowieka w świecie, Bydgoszcz-Poznań

    Google Scholar 

  • Siobhan W (2009) Protecting civilians: the obligations of peacekeepers. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Sommaruga C (1997) Humanitarian action and peace-keeping operation. Int Rev Red Cross, 317: 178–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoddard A, Harmer A (2010) Supporting security for humanitarian action. A Review of Critical Issues for Humanitarian Community. Humanitarian Outcomes

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoddard A, Harmer A, Haver K (2006) Providing aid in insecure environments: trends in policy and operations. HPG Report 23

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoffels RA (2004) Legal regulation of humanitarian assistance in armed conflict: achievements and gaps. Int Rev Red Cross 855:516

    Google Scholar 

  • Strachan H, Scheipers S (eds) (2011) The changing character of war. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Studer M (2001) The ICRC and civil-military relations in armed conflict. Int Rev Red Cross 842:367–391, 374–377

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2003) Glossary of humanitarian terms in relation to the protection of civilians in armed conflict. United Nations, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations (2006) UN field security handbook – system-wide arrangements for the protection of united nations personnel and property in the field. http://www.unicef.org/paraguay/spanish/Security_Brochure_UNICEF_COUNTRY_OFFICES_-_Local_staff.pdf. Accessed 3 June 2013

  • Venturini G (2001) War crimes in international armed conflicts. In: Politi M, Nesi G (eds) The Rome statute of the international criminal court. A challenge to impunity. Ashgate, Aldershot

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner JG (2005) An IHL/ICRC perspective on ‘humanitarian space’. Humanitarian Exch Mag 32:24–26

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. NOHA Faculty, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland

    Agnieszka Bieńczyk-Missala & Patrycja Grzebyk

Authors
  1. Agnieszka Bieńczyk-Missala
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Patrycja Grzebyk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Patrycja Grzebyk .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Agriculture and Food Science, School Of Agriculture & Food Science, Dublin 4, Ireland

    Pat Gibbons

  2. Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict, Bochum, Germany

    Hans-Joachim Heintze

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bieńczyk-Missala, A., Grzebyk, P. (2015). Safety and Protection of Humanitarian Workers. In: Gibbons, P., Heintze, HJ. (eds) The Humanitarian Challenge. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13470-3_12

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation