Abstract
Sodium chloride, or salt, has long been added to foods for a variety of purposes. Despite the value it contributes to food in both functionality and sensory aspects, overconsumption increases the risk of many chronic diseases. A great deal of strategies has been used in attempts to maintain the functionality and sensory quality of foods with a reduced-sodium content to assist in reducing the incidence of sodium overconsumption. While strategies focusing on stealth reduction of sodium and modifying the physical structure of the food or salt crystal itself are potential options to food manufacturers hoping to reduce sodium content, strategies that modify the flavor profile of the food may provide viable solutions that do not necessitate lengthy timeframes to implement or costly equipment. Replacement of portions of salt with potassium chloride is arguably the most popular flavor modification strategy to reduce sodium content, although it is not without drawbacks including an often reduced salty taste and a high likelihood of conferring an off-taste. Incorporating umami as a flavor enhancer into reduced-sodium foods takes advantage of the saltiness-enhancing effect typically associated with the umami taste and can be utilized through a variety of different substances. Although monosodium glutamate is a well-known umami-conferring substance with ample investigation into its use in sodium reduced products, incorporation of ribonucleotides, certain amino acids, and umami-heavy ingredients such as tomatoes or mushrooms has also been investigated.
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4.1 Introduction
A specific preference for substances exhibiting a salty taste, typically originating from foods containing salt (NaCl), has been identified in humans. Salt is used in food for a variety of purposes, largely falling into the categories of preservation, flavor, and processing function. While salt is useful in food products, when consumed in excess, it may increase the risk of many chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and hypertension. In attempts to reduce the high-sodium content of many processed and prepackaged foods, the addition of umami flavor has been increasingly investigated due to its potential to enhance saltiness, as well as other favorable flavor attributes. Much investigation has focused on glutamates, primarily monosodium glutamate (MSG), although other frequently studied umami substances include soy and yeast derivatives. The many options available to impart umami taste have varying results, generally positive overall. Despite the variety of investigations into using umami to reduce sodium in food, there are several gaps in the research that would benefit from future study. Examples include how to enhance umami in solid food matrices aligned with sodium reduction and how greater reductions in sodium content can be achieved by combining umami enhancement and physical modification methods.
4.2 Role of Salt in Food
4.2.1 Relevance of Salt
It has become commonplace that, when food is bland or unappetizing, salt is added in an attempt to improve flavor. Given the ubiquitous presence of salt and its extensive use in various cuisines, it comes as no surprise that humans have a specific preference for substances with a salty taste. Whether this preference originates from an innate appetite for salt or is largely a learned behavior remains unclear (Círillo et al., 1994; Mennella, 2014). The affinity for salty foods may also be partially explained by the biological necessity of sodium in the diet for survival, which is most easily accessible through sodium chloride, popularly known as salt (Beauchamp & Engelman, 1991; Liem, 2017). Regardless, the inclination for humans to consume salty foods is apparent, as demonstrated by the preference for salted over unsalted foods and the prevalence of sodium overconsumption (Beauchamp & Engelman, 1991; Verma etal., 2007).
4.2.2 Major Roles of Salt
Extending past salt appetite, dietary sodium intake is also driven by functional roles of salt (hereafter referred to as NaCl) in food. By grouping certain roles together, three main uses of NaCl can be observed: preservation, processability, and flavor (Kilcast & den Ridder, 2007) (Fig. 4.1).
Main roles of NaCl used in food products. (Created with BioRender.com)
4.2.2.1 Preservation
NaCl has been used throughout history as a preservative, with many traditional fermented, brined, and pickled products relying on its ability to preserve foods (Everis & Betts, 2019; Kim et al., 2017). While NaCl itself does not confer significant antimicrobial activity, its ability to create an inhospitable environment for microorganisms and pathogens effectively extends a product’s shelf life by preventing rapid spoilage. NaCl confers stress on microbes in part by reducing water activity, which limits unbound water available for microbial growth, and by increasing osmotic pressure, which can inhibit microbial growth and survival by inducing osmosis (Albarracín et al., 2011; Henney et al., 2010; Kim et al., 2017). These mechanisms are pivotal to interrupting harmful microbial processes; hence, NaCl is an easily accessible and inexpensive method of preservation.
4.2.2.2 Processability
Another major role of NaCl in foods relates to its functionality during the processing of certain food products. For example, in the manufacturing of bread, NaCl is necessary for adequate gluten development in dough, due to its ability to strengthen gluten, increase dough elasticity, and decrease dough extensibility (Noort et al., 2012; Simsek & Martinez, 2016). The presence of NaCl also impacts the fermentation process: by increasing NaCl levels in dough, yeast activity can be reduced, and as a result, the rate of fermentation decreases (Cauvain, 1998). NaCl is also important for the production of certain meat products, influencing water-holding capacity, activating enzymatic activity, and potentially generating ripening pigments (Albarracín et al., 2011). Similarly, NaCl is added to cheese to alter the water-binding activity of casein, to modify protein conformation by controlling certain enzymatic activity, and to regulate the growth of the lactic acid bacteria used in production (Albarracín et al., 2011; Floury et al., 2009). The examples listed above may also be relevant to the production of other products as well, and the functional role that NaCl plays in the processing of food is not limited to these examples.
4.2.2.3 Salty Taste
The effect that NaCl has on flavor is likely its most recognizable role in food. Evident from the name of the taste, salt confers a salty taste, one of the five identified basic tastes alongside sweet, sour, bitter, and umami, and has been found to have flavor-enhancing qualities. When NaCl is omitted from certain foods, the flavor quality is often found to suffer. Resulting food products may be described as tasteless, bland, or insipid (Cauvain, 1998; Kilcast & den Ridder, 2007). To reduce sodium levels in food, other chloride salts have been suggested in anticipation that they may also impart the easily identifiable salty taste. While many chloride salts exist and have been used in food manufacturing, only NaCl and LiCl have been found to impart a salty taste (Van Der Klaauw & Smith, 1995). With a goal of reducing sodium, LiCl appears to be an appropriate replacement for NaCl as it imparts saltiness in a manner similar to sodium’s ion channel utilized with NaCl. However, due to the toxicity of lithium ions, LiCl has been eliminated as a possible replacement (McCaughey, 2019).
Although NaCl’s use to impart a salty taste has not been successfully replicated, other compounds yet to be investigated likely have the potential to add saltiness to food. Looking ahead, it is sensible to consider that the activation of the sodium receptor mechanism may not be the sole determinant of salty taste perception—we should not assume there is only a single receptor, with only one transduction cascade, for such a basic taste (McCaughey, 2019). Considering how taste cells also contain separate sweet- and umami-responsive receptors or pathways that are independent of the canonical T1R3 receptor (Damak et al., 2003), the salty taste mechanism may also involve multiple receptors and has yet to be completely characterized.
4.2.2.4 Flavor Modification
Although NaCl is best known for conferring a salty taste, its influence on flavor extends past that singular taste modality. The sodium in NaCl can act as a bitter blocker and can enhance sweet tastes. The ability for sodium and NaCl to suppress bitter taste has been demonstrated alongside such bitter compounds as quinine hydrochloride (Schifferstein & Frijters, 1992) and caffeine, magnesium sulfate, amiloride, potassium chloride, and urea (Beauchamp et al., 2001; Breslin & Beauchamp, 1995), to various percentages of maximum bitterness sensation. This suppression of bitterness is likely a result of suppression at the periphery, in the oral cavity, where tastes interact with receptor cells and where, consequently, sodium and NaCl can inhibit taste receptor function (Wilkie et al., 2014). This is supported by the ability of sodium and NaCl to suppress bitterness when there is minimal salty taste perception (Keast & Breslin, 2002), but not when bitter and salty stimuli are applied to opposite sides of the tongue simultaneously (Kroeze & Bartoshuk, 1985).
In contrast to evidence of NaCl acting as an effective bitter blocker, some research has reported sodium or NaCl to be ineffective at reducing caffeine bitterness perception (Kamen et al., 1961), possibly suggesting that the suppression effect depends on such factors as the specific sodium compound and its concentration and the bitter compound and its concentration. Similarly, sodium’s or NaCl’s effectiveness may be affected by the consumer’s taste phenotype: those who perceive 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) as more bitter experienced bitter blocking from sodium compounds, when tested with Brassicaceae vegetable, to a greater extent than those unable to taste PROP at all (Sharafi et al., 2013).
The ability for sodium or NaCl to suppress bitterness may also enhance favorable flavors by releasing tastes from the mixture suppression effect: the suppression of bitter tastes by sodium salts releases sweet tastes from being suppressed by bitterness (Beauchamp et al., 2001; Breslin & Beauchamp, 1997; Kemp & Beauchamp, 1994). The phenomenon can be particularly useful for increasing vegetable intake, as the increased sweetness and decreased bitterness may increase consumer liking (Sharafi et al., 2013; Wilkie et al., 2014).
4.3 Sodium Intake and Health
4.3.1 State of Sodium Consumption
The overconsumption of sodium, well above recommended intake limits, has become commonplace worldwide (Brown et al., 2009). Despite the recommendation by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans for sodium intake to be limited to less than 2300 mg per day (U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2020), and the World Health Organization’s recommendation of less than 2000 mg/day (Brown et al., 2009), the average sodium intake for American adults is roughly 3400 mg/day; thus, sodium has been designated as a nutrient of health concern for overconsumption (Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2020).
4.3.2 Sodium Sources
An estimated 75% of sodium intake in North American and European diets has been found to originate from processed or restaurant foods; roughly 10–12% can be traced each to sodium occurring naturally in foods or from discretionary use at the table (James et al., 1987; Mattes & Donnelly, 1991). Most sodium intake in developed countries results from consumption of “hidden” sodium in processed foods. However, some countries also struggle with high-sodium intake from different origins. For example, in the People’s Republic of China, over 75% of dietary sodium has been found to come from salt added in home cooking (Anderson et al., 2010; Zhai, 2006).
4.3.3 Sodium’s Effects on Health
Evidence of associations between excess sodium consumption and a multitude of adverse health effects has been demonstrated by meta-analyses and systematic reviews (Institute of Medicine, 2005; Malta et al., 2018). Figure 4.2 displays a selection of these health effects. A growing body of literature on dietary sodium intake and health has found a linear relationship between sodium intake and risk of developing hypertension (Bock & Cottier, 1961; Hermansen, 2000; Kim & Andrade, 2016), which further increases the risk of developing such conditions as coronary heart disease, congestive heart failure (Butler et al., 2015), stroke (Strazzullo et al., 2009), and renal disease (Keiko, 2017). Research also suggests that excessive salt intake leads to increased risk for certain cancers, including gastric cancer (Sheng et al., 2012) and liver cancer (Sun et al., 2020), further demonstrating the need to reduce the general population’s sodium intake.
Some increased health risks from overconsumption of sodium. (Created with BioRender.com)
4.4 Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake
4.4.1 Stealth
Many methods have been investigated to reduce sodium overconsumption, such as leading consumers to healthier choices and manipulating high-sodium foods to contain reduced-sodium levels. While a sudden reduction in the amount of added salt in a recipe can lead to lower acceptance by consumers, a stepwise reduction in sodium—the stealth method—may alleviate some of the effects on consumer perception without requiring additional ingredients. The stealth method can be effective in reducing sodium overconsumption by developing foods that remain liked by consumers through progressively reducing the sodium content of the food or of a consumer’s diet over time and, consequently, reducing preference for higher levels of salt intensity. This shift in preference can become evident anywhere from a few days to a few months after the shift in sodium intake (Bertino et al., 1982; Dötsch et al., 2009; Girgis et al., 2003; Quilez & Salas-Salvado, 2012).
4.4.2 Physical Modification
Another method of reducing sodium in foods that can be used without including additional ingredients is physical modification. Methods for physical modification of foods for sodium reduction are diverse (Fig. 4.3) and include using different salt crystal morphologies (Rama et al., 2013; Rodrigues et al., 2016), altering the texture of a food (Pflaum et al., 2013), and inhomogeneous distribution of salt in a food product to produce taste contrast (Noort et al., 2010). While physical modification methods have generally had promising results, costs associated with new or upgraded machinery to produce those methods may be an obstacle for many manufacturing companies.
Physical modification methods used to reduce sodium in food products. (Created with BioRender.com)
4.4.3 Flavor Modification
In flavor modification, the flavor of a food is modified by adding another compound or food ingredient. Described below are only a subset of the wide range of flavor modification strategies available, primary detailing salt replacement and umami-based strategies.
4.4.3.1 Salt Replacement
The most widely investigated flavor modification method involves salt replacers. Although many materials have been investigated for their potential as a salt replacer, such as phosphates (Pandya et al., 2020; Seman et al., 1980), sulfates (Davaatseren et al., 2014), and citrates (Braschi et al., 2009), the most promising are mineral salts, in particular, potassium chloride (KCl) (Grummer et al., 2012). Although KCl can contribute only slightly less saltiness than sodium chloride, it has also been commonly described to have a bitter taste, which further exemplifies the need for improved methods for salt reduction (Rogério Tavares Filho et al., 2020). As noted above, LiCl has been found to confer a salty taste similar to sodium chloride, but it has been deemed unsafe to consume and thus is not a viable salt replacement option (Hand et al., 1982).
4.4.3.2 Umami-Based Strategies
4.4.3.2.1 Fundamentals of umami Strategies
In 1985, a groundbreaking meeting to discuss umami was held. At this meeting, umami was selected as the scientific term for the specific taste attributes generated by glutamates, particularly monosodium glutamate (MSG), as well as the 5′-ribonucleotides guanosine monophosphate (GMP) and inosine monophosphate (IMP) (Tepper & Yeomans, 2017). Research has shown that significant differences exist regarding individuals’ ability to detect MSG and that some may lack the ability to detect MSG relative to NaCl (Lugaz et al., 2002; Raliou et al., 2009).
MSG is likely the most investigated umami-imparting substance for use in sodium reduction. Despite the evidence of its safety (Fernstrom, 2007), stigma still surrounds it from the “Chinese restaurant syndrome” it has been erroneously accused of causing (Husarova & Ostatníková, 2013). While other glutamates similar in structure to MSG, such as monoammonium glutamate (MAG), monomagnesium di-L-glutamate (MDG), and calcium diglutamate (CDG) (see Fig. 4.4), have been studied for their potential in maintaining acceptance or saltiness of reduced-sodium foods, with some level of success, publications are limited (Ball et al., 2002; Carter et al., 2011; Daget & Guion, 1989). IMP and GMP, as well as their respective derived acid salts, disodium inosinate and disodium guanylate (Fig. 4.5), have also been investigated for sodium reduction. Research has shown that they can be used as an alternative to MSG, thus avoiding the stigma surrounding MSG. Disodium inosinate and disodium guanylate are also used in a 50:50 mixture, referred to as I + G, which then may be used in conjunction with glutamates to impart a synergistic effect and yield a highly savory taste with minimal concentrations. These nucleotide compounds are produced by microbial fermentation, derived by animal origin or, more often, all-vegetable tapioca starch, so their use may be more accepted by the public than the well-known MSG.
4.4.3.2.2 Detection Thresholds of Umami Substances and Sodium Chloride
The detection thresholds of umami substances differ from that of sodium chloride both in concentration and in threshold variability. The concentration required to detect NaCl in water is lower than the concentration for MSG, first reported to be 1/400 and 1/3000, respectively (Ikeda, 2002). Studies on the interaction between umami and the basic tastes at threshold have yielded conflicting results, although it is more often reported that MSG does not change threshold values for sucrose or sodium chloride (Lockhart & Gainer, 1950; Yamaguchi, 1998) but reduces thresholds for sour and bitter tastes (Mosel & Kantrowitz, 1952). The impact of different umami substances on detection thresholds of other compounds that elicit primarily umami tastes, such as MSG or the 5′-ribonucleotides, is notable: both in clear soup (Luscombe-Marsh et al., 2008) and in solution (Yamaguchi, 1998), when the solvent contains IMP, the detection threshold for MSG is lowered significantly. This also occurs with the IMP detection threshold when evaluated in an MSG-supplemented solution, as MSG and IMP are known to have a strong synergistic effect (Yamaguchi, 1998). When evaluated in solutions containing other basic taste substances, the detection threshold of MSG did not increase except when sucrose concentration was high. Because of the synergistic ability for the MSG detection threshold to be reduced and the relative ease of distinguishing umami in the presence of other tastes, it has been suggested that, among the five basic tastes, MSG is the most sensorily perceived substance (Yamaguchi, 1998). This is a point of contention, though, as the intensity of umami sensation is considered inferior compared to substances characterized by extremely strong tastes, including alkaloids or saccharin (Ikeda, 2002).
4.4.3.2.3 Taste Profile of Umami Substances
Statements used to describe the taste and flavor of MSG vary greatly. From the first symposium on MSG in 1948, many descriptions of pure MSG were reported, including “a desirable meat-like taste,” “all four components: sweetness, sourness, saltiness, and bitterness,” and “a persistent lingering flavor reaction,” to name a few (Beauchamp, 2009). MSG has been described as having a slightly sweet and salty taste (Lockhart & Gainer, 1950), but it has also been described as eliciting sweet, sour, salty, and bitter tastes (Mosel & Kantrowitz, 1952). Despite numerous studies investigating MSG taste, a clear consensus on its sensory properties is still lacking (Kemp & Beauchamp, 1994; Beauchamp, 2009).
The temporal profile of tastes in solution varies depending on the substance and whether it is alone or combined with other tastes. When evaluating a single primary taste solution at a time, salty and umami tastes show similar temporal time-intensity profiles and temporal dominance of sensations (Rocha et al., 2020). These two tastes were also similar in that the duration of the taste solutions, MSG for umami and NaCl for salty, increased in a concentration-dependent manner.
4.4.3.2.4 Saltiness of Umami Compounds
The saltiness of MSG is approximately 30% that of NaCl by molar sodium concentration and 10% of NaCl by weight (De Souza et al., 2013; Yamaguchi, 1998). IMP has a saltiness equivalence of approximately 50% molar sodium concentration of NaCl and 7% by weight. Combining both MSG and IMP results in a taste that is largely umami due to their synergistic actions and thus is negligible in saltiness (Yamaguchi, 1998).
4.4.3.2.5 Interactions Between Salty and Umami Tastes
The effect of combining MSG and NaCl on saltiness has been examined over the years. A compensatory relationship between the two has been suggested, where more MSG is necessary as NaCl is reduced and vice versa. In soups, the optimal combination of NaCl and MSG has been reported as approximately 2:1 ratio of NaCl to MSG (Chi & Chen, 1992; Jinap et al., 2016; Yamaguchi & Takahashi, 1984), although the dynamics of palatability and saltiness vary for differing matrices (Baryłko-Pikielna & Kostyra, 2007; Kim et al., 2014). It has also been demonstrated that enhanced palatability from MSG largely depends on the presence of NaCl, as MSG alone reduced hedonic perception in rice, whereas MSG plus NaCl mitigated palatability loss from MSG (Yamaguchi, 1987; Yamaguchi & Takahashi, 1984).
In NaCl and MSG mixtures, a temporal sequence of basic taste perception was evident: the dominant taste prior to swallowing was saltiness, whereas umami was the dominant taste after swallowing (Kawasaki et al., 2016). In NaCl and MSG mixtures, umami duration in MSG solutions decreased with additional NaCl (Lioe et al., 2005), while saltiness duration in NaCl solutions increased with additional MSG (Kemp & Beauchamp, 1994). Such findings demonstrate a mixture-duration suppression effect for NaCl in NaCl+MSG mixtures and that saltiness of concentrated NaCl has a greater impact on umami taste duration than on enhanced umami taste (Kawasaki et al., 2016).
The ability for umami compounds to enhance salty taste in solution has also been evident using the glutamate MAG and the nucleotides IMP and GMP. At every NaCl concentration, saltiness enhancement was greater using MSG and MAG than using either IMP or GMP, although all umami flavor enhancers displayed similar sensory profiles (Rocha et al., 2020). Saltiness enhancement was also more apparent when NaCl concentration was reduced in smaller amounts, indicating that these substances may be most appropriately suited for foods requiring less drastic reductions in sodium content (Rocha et al., 2020).
4.4.3.3 Umami Compounds as Flavor Enhancers in Sodium-Reduced Products
4.4.3.3.1 Glutamates
4.4.3.3.1.1 Liquids
Glutamates have frequently been evaluated for their potential in sodium-reduced liquid foods over the years. In pumpkin soup, CDG and MSG have been demonstrated to maintain or increase ratings in liking, flavor intensity, familiarity, and richness under reduced-sodium conditions (Ball et al., 2002). Similar results were demonstrated using CDG in sodium-reduced chicken broth, where liking and pleasantness were maintained (Carter et al., 2011). Chicken broth containing a variety of different glutamates, including MSG, CDG, MDG, potassium diglutamate, and ammonium glutamate, were investigated previously with varying levels of success. All except ammonium glutamate and pure glutamic acid were preferred, according to preference ranking (Daget & Guion, 1989).
MSG has been the most researched glutamate for sodium reduction in liquid foods. In spicy soup, an approximate 32% reduction in sodium was feasible with MSG replacing a portion of the salt (Jinap et al., 2016). Promising results for MSG in sodium-reduced foods were also evident for tomato sauce (Rogério Tavares Filho et al., 2020), clear soup (Yamaguchi & Takahashi, 1984), chicken soup (Wang et al., 2019b), and certain vegetable soups (Roininen et al., 1996).
4.4.3.3.1.2 Semisolids
The use of MSG and KCl in margarine allows an approximate 47% reduction in sodium content while maintaining salty taste and overall impression (Gonçalves et al., 2017). When used in combination with KCl and either I + G or amino acids, MSG successfully maintained liking at 50% and 75% salt reductions (dos Santos et al., 2014). In mozzarella cheese supplemented with MSG and KCl, a 54% reduction in sodium was feasible while maintaining sensory quality (Rodrigues et al., 2014). While KCl has been demonstrated to have a closer saltiness equivalence to NaCl than does MSG, MSG does not enhance undesirable tastes in butter, as had been evident with KCl (De Souza et al., 2013).
4.4.3.3.1.3 Solids
MSG has been demonstrated to enhance liking in reduced-sodium potato chips and puffed rice snacks compared to their full-salt counterparts and to either maintain or increase liking when consumers were informed of the reduction in sodium (Buechler & Lee, 2019, 2020). The effect of informed versus blind tasting is not consistent, however, as contrasting results were found in potato chips. In another study, the full-salt treatment was least liked compared to the MSG treatments under blind conditions, yet once participants were informed, the MSG treatments became less liked (Kongstad & Giacalone, 2020), suggesting consumers may still have a bias against certain flavor-enhancing compounds such as MSG. The use of MSG in reduced sodium white and multigrain bread was found to have similar acceptability and sensory characteristics when compared to their full-salt counterparts, although in contrast to aforementioned studies, information about sodium reductions and MSG inclusion had not impacted consumer perceptions (Dunteman & Lee, 2023a, b) indicating the possibility that consumers are placing less importance on clean labeling of their foods than before.
4.4.3.3.2 5′-Ribonucleotides
4.4.3.3.2.1 Liquids
Although MSG is the most investigated umami-imparting substance for reducing sodium, the use of 5′-ribonucleotides IMP and GMP, as well as their respective derived acid salts, disodium inosinate and disodium guanylate, has also been the focus of investigation. As noted above, disodium inosinate and disodium guanylate are also used in the 50:50 mixture I + G, which then may be used in conjunction with glutamates to yield a synergistic effect and impart a highly savory taste with minimal concentrations.
Research has shown conflicting feasibility for use of 5′-ribonucleotides in liquid applications. In vegetable soup at both low- and high-salt content, the inclusion of an umami mixture consisting of IMP, GMP, and MSG (Roininen et al., 1996) evoked increases in pleasantness, taste intensity, and ideal saltiness. Further evidence for using these nucleotides was identified with chicken noodle soup: inclusion of a mixture of MSG, IMP, and GMP led to increased intensity for such attributes as overall flavor, umami taste, and mouthfeel (Leong et al., 2016). In contrast, when an umami mixture of IMP, GMP, and KCl was incorporated into tomato sauce, the flavor acceptance was significantly reduced compared to the control sauce. On the other hand, when only KCl and IMP were added to the tomato sauce, there was no reduction in the acceptance of the evaluated attributes (Rogério Tavares Filho et al., 2020). The contrasting effectiveness of these nucleotides appears partially influenced by the food application: while I + G in mushroom, red beet, and asparagus soups contributed considerably to palatability enhancement, inclusion of MSG and I + G in green pea cream soup largely incurred a negative effect on palatability (Baryłko-Pikielna & Kostyra, 2007). Finally, IMP plus MSG enhanced perception of savory taste and flavor intensity and increase consumer acceptance in reduced-sodium chicken noodle soup (Miyaki et al., 2016).
4.4.3.3.2.2 Semisolids
When incorporated into a sodium reduction strategy for semisolid food matrices, nucleotides and/or their derivatives appear to mitigate quality loss resulting from sodium reduction or undesirable attributes characteristic of KCl in salt replacement. Addition of KCl with IMP and GMP to sausage patties allowed up to 75% NaCl replacement before acceptability was reduced (Pasin et al., 1989). In sausages containing KCl as salt replacement, the addition of IMP and GMP with certain amino acids led to higher quality ratings than for sausages with KCl alone and resulted in no differences compared to the full-salt control (Campagnol et al., 2011a, b, 2012).
The addition of MSG to sausages reformulated with IMP, GMP, and certain amino acids allows for further reductions in sodium content, masking undesirable sensory changes resulting from replacing up to 75% of NaCl in the samples with KCl and allowing for greater than 65% reduction of sodium (dos Santos et al., 2014). The use of I + G and IMP alone with KCl salt replacement in reduced-sodium tomato sauce was also effective in masking metallic notes (Rogério Tavares Filho et al., 2020). The promising quality of GMP for masking negative attributes from KCl has also been reported in nonmeat products, such as reduced-sodium cheddar cheese. While cheeses with KCl and IMP were less accepted across all attributes evaluated, those with KCl and GMP either maintained or increased attribute acceptance compared to the control cheese (Grummer et al., 2013).
4.4.3.3.2.3 Solids
Little research has been done on solid foods using nucleotides as a strategy for sodium reduction. One study reported potato chips and puffed rice snacks seasoned with IMP, GMP, and MSG to have higher ratings of liking compared to the full-salt control samples (Buechler & Lee, 2019). When consumers were informed of the sodium reduction, the puffed rice snacks containing IMP, GMP, and MSG were rated as the most liked, while potato chips maintained their liking ratings. Descriptive analysis of the chips containing IMP, GMP, and MSG revealed that ratings for umami aftertaste and meaty aftertaste were higher and ratings for salty aftertaste were lower compared to the full-salt control chips. External preference mapping indicated that this treatment of potato chips was well liked. In rice puff snacks, the majority of evaluated attributes significantly differed across treatments, and external preference mapping indicated that those seasoned with IMP, GMP, and MSG were most liked (Buechler & Lee, 2020).
4.4.3.3.3 Other Amino Acids
4.4.3.3.3.1 Liquids
While research has been limited thus far on amino acids in liquid foods, those that have been have not had a positive impact on reduced-sodium foods. Soup with glutamic acid was characterized by a low overall quality, an acid taste, and a reduced chicken flavor (Daget & Guion, 1989). Similarly, lysine used as a bitter blocker in conjunction with KCl in reduced-sodium tomato sauce was ineffective: the treatment sample had increased bitterness and metallic taste compared to the full-salt control (Rogério Tavares Filho et al., 2020).
4.4.3.3.3.2 Semisolids
Glycine, lysine, and taurine have been evaluated in conjunction with salt replacement and MSG- and nucleotide-supplemented semisolid food matrixes, with differing results. Glycine has been used in reduced-sodium frankfurters with acceptable consumer perception (Wilailux et al., 2020). Lysine in reduced-sodium reconstructed ham successfully maintained overall acceptability, appearance, taste, and mouthfeel liking compared to a full-salt control (Guo et al., 2020). Lysine and taurine in reduced-sodium fermented sausage, with 50% NaCl replaced with KCl and supplemented with MSG, IMP, and GMP, produced suitable sensory qualities (dos Santos et al., 2014). Lysine and taurine were also reported to increase taste acceptability in fermented sausages in which KCl replaced a portion of the NaCl; taurine in particular had promising results, as all attributes evaluated maintained acceptability compared to the full-salt control (Campagnol et al., 2011a, b). Results were similar with lysine addition: consumer acceptance of color, taste, aroma, and texture in reduced-sodium sausages was maintained, although once 50% of NaCl was replaced with KCl, certain sensory defects could not be mitigated (Campagnol et al., 2012).
In cheese, amino acids were used in conjunction with other sodium reduction methods, such as added umami substances, physical modification, and salt replacement. Arginine has opposing results. Studies have shown reduced-sodium cheese with KCl and arginine to be less liked than full-salt cheese without KCl or arginine (Silva et al., 2017) and to have decreased saltiness and cheese aroma and increased sour and bitter tastes (Silva et al., 2018). In contrast, reduced-sodium cheese containing KCl and arginine had acceptable cheese flavor and overall acceptance compared to reduced-sodium cheeses with KCl alone (Felicio et al., 2016). Substitution of 35% salt with KCl in combination with glycine in rice porridge was feasible: ratings for overall liking, overall flavor, saltiness, and other attributes did not differ significantly from the full-salt control (Sriwattana et al., 2016).
4.4.3.3.3.3 Solids
At the time of writing, no research has been conducted on the use of amino acids to reduce sodium in solid foods. This is a research area that needs to be explored in the future.
4.4.3.3.3.4 Other Umami Substances
A great variety of ingredients with naturally occurring umami tastes have been identified. Select ingredients used for their umami-conferring properties in sodium-reduced foods are displayed in Fig. 4.6.
Umami-containing ingredients investigated to reduce sodium in food products. (Created with BioRender.com)
4.4.3.3.3.5 Liquids
The use of umami substances in liquid foods to aid in maintaining quality alongside sodium reduction has been investigated in several studies. Partial replacement of salt with fish sauce, a natural source of glutamate and 5′-ribonucleotides, was demonstrated to successfully maintain overall taste intensity and deliciousness in chicken broth, tomato sauce, and coconut curry, at rates of 25%, 16%, and 10% NaCl reduction, respectively (Huynh et al., 2016). Soy sauce, despite contributing some sodium, has been found to allow for salt reductions of up to 50% in salad dressing and between 17% and 33% in tomato soup without significant reductions in overall taste intensity or pleasantness (Goh et al., 2011; Kremer et al., 2009). Other research has also demonstrated the potential for salt replacement by soy sauce for sodium reduction in tomato soup, with results suggesting levels of 24–33% to be feasible (Kremer et al., 2013b).
Other umami substances investigated in liquid foods include yeast extract, mushroom concentrate, and tomato concentrate. While not incorporating sodium reduction into their treatments, researchers have found that overall liking and overall flavor liking in chicken soup increased with the addition of yeast extract and were maintained with mushroom concentrate and tomato concentrate, thus suggesting the investigated umami ingredients may be used to produce reduced-salt soups with attributes deemed acceptable by consumers (Wang et al., 2019a).
4.4.3.3.3.6 Semisolids
A variety of different umami substances have been used in semisolid foods to aid in sodium reduction, including, but not limited to, yeast derivatives, soy derivatives, and ingredients naturally high in glutamates like tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweed, and cheese. Yeast derivatives are often used in combination with KCl for a variety of purposes, such as to reduce bitterness perception, increase saltiness intensity, and increase consumer acceptance. Yeast extract in bread with partial salt replacement by KCl allowed for 67% sodium reduction without affecting bread consumption or causing sodium intake compensation with sandwich fillings (Bolhuis et al., 2011). Fermented sausages also benefited from yeast extract to mitigate quality defects from KCl and reduce sodium by 50% (Campagnol et al., 2011a, b). Similarly, Debaryomyces hansenii yeast inoculation improved taste quality of 17–20% salt-reduced dry fermented sausages (Corral et al., 2014). Reduced-sodium prato cheese with KCl salt replacement and supplementation with yeast extract and Lactobacillus casei increased consumer liking and saltiness intensity and decreased bitterness intensity and bitterness aftertaste compared to the same treatment without yeast extract, to the same ratings as the control, allowing for an approximate 35% reduction in sodium content (Silva et al., 2017, 2018).
Soy derivatives have been used for sodium reduction in semisolid foods such as bread and stir-fried pork. Over an exposure period of 15 days, liking of reduced-sodium bread with soy sauce did not decrease, whereas liking of the full-sodium control bread decreased; however, no differences were found in perceived saltiness intensity (Kremer et al., 2013a, b). In stir-fried pork with soy sauce, a 29% reduction in sodium content was feasible without significant losses in ratings of product pleasantness or overall taste intensity (Goh et al., 2011; Kremer et al., 2009). Frankfurters have also benefited from soy sauce, allowing for a 20% reduction in salt content without reduced ratings for quality or sensory characteristics; when treatments included KCl in addition to the soy sauce, a 35% reduction was feasible (McGough et al., 2012a, b). Additionally, no differences in overall liking or saltiness liking were observed for bacon, beef jerky, or ham with a 30% reduction of sodium and incorporation of KCl and soy sauce (Shazer et al., 2015).
Mushrooms have been used in many studies of reduced-sodium semisolid foods, although their purpose tends to focus on replacing other meats. In carne asada, substitution of a portion of beef with mushroom had no effect on flavor intensity, and in beef taco blends, incorporating 50–80% ground mushroom increased overall flavor intensity. Despite this, inclusion of mushroom did not fully mitigate saltiness reduction in the reduced-sodium blend (Myrdal Miller et al., 2014), but when 20% of beef was replaced with mushroom, overall liking was maintained with a 25% reduction in salt (Guinard et al., 2016). On a similar note, consumers preferred the reduced-sodium filling with 45% mushroom over both the full-sodium control with all meat and the full-sodium control with 45% mushroom (Wong et al., 2017). Mushrooms were also successfully used in reduced-sodium beef patties at 20% replacement levels: ratings for overall liking and saltiness liking were maintained with an approximate 25% reduction in sodium (Wong et al., 2019). Mushroom extract has also been investigated for sodium reduction in beef patties, where a 50% reduction in salt in the presence of the 20% mushroom homogenate extract increased acceptance of a variety of sensory attributes and enhanced salt perception to levels similar to that of the full-salt control and to levels greater compared to the 50% reduced-sodium treatments with 5% or 12.5% mushroom homogenate extract and the 75% reduced-sodium treatments (Mattar et al., 2018).
Other umami ingredients such as tomatoes, cheeses (Dos Santos et al., 2020; Xiang et al., 2017), fish sauce (Huynh et al., 2016), hydrolyzed vegetable proteins (Khetra et al., 2019), and seaweed derivatives (Barbieri et al., 2016; Vilar et al., 2020) have also been investigated for use in reduced-sodium foods, with mixed results, although results trended toward acceptable products by either maintaining or increasing quality attributes.
4.4.3.3.3.7 Solids
At the time of writing, no research has been conducted on the use of umami substances to reduce sodium in solid foods. This is another research area in need of exploration.
4.5 Conclusion
This chapter has discussed certain gaps in knowledge surrounding the use of the umami taste in relation to salt and sodium reduction. While glutamates, particularly MSG, are well studied, there is limited research into other approaches that would align with consumer expectations. Soy and yeast derivatives, ingredients naturally high in glutamates, and potentially certain amino acids may all be preferred by the general public compared to glutamates or the 5′-ribonucleotides, given the familiarity and perception consumers likely have surrounding these substances.
Research including both blind and informed conditions on umami-based sodium reduction methods is largely absent from the literature yet would provide valuable insights into the potential of each method once available on the market. There is also a large gap in how these methods may fare in solid food products—studies currently are limited to potato chips and puffed rice snacks. While this may reflect the fact that most high-sodium foods are either liquids (e.g., soups) or semisolids (e.g., cured meats), further investigation into other product categories would be valuable, as future food trends cannot be predicted. Research on umami in solid foods would also help increase our knowledge of sodium reduction methods in solid foods.
Lastly, while much research has used umami-based methods in combination with other umami substances or with the salt replacer KCl, other sodium reduction methods achieved by modifying the physical form or processing conditions in conjunction with umami taste have not been well studied; this approach may enable larger reductions in sodium content than currently available.
Despite the diversity in sources of umami taste and sodium reduction presented throughout this chapter, certain limitations have arisen during writing. Not every piece of literature investigating the umami taste has been reviewed; gray literature that is difficult to identify may be present yet inaccessible. Similarly, not every literature review on the topic has been included owing to limitations in space and in the scope of this book. Although this chapter provides a detailed look into how umami and salt are related, further connections may have not been identified as a result of the tendency to present each taste independent of the others, without sufficient literature review and discussion.
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Dunteman, A., Lee, SY. (2024). Umami and Salty: A Cooperative Pair. In: San Gabriel, A., Rains, T.M., Beauchamp, G. (eds) Umami. Food and Health. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32692-9_4
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