Introduction

Abstract

The Near Eastern wetlands are the vast marshes of southern Iraq (al-ahwār) in the lower Mesopotamian region, an impression shaped tectonically as a consequence of the Arabian plate being subducted beneath the Iranian or Eurasian plate. These are considered the famous among the lower lands in the Middle East. These wetlands covered in 1970 an estimated area ranging from 15,000 to 20,000 square kilometres. The eastern margins of the marshlands spread over the boundary into south-western Iran, and they therefore create a transboundary ecosystem under shared responsibility. Euphrates River is the prime supplier of marshes with water, with contributions from tributaries of Tigris River. The fundamental region of the marshes is located in the area around the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates. Therefore, the whole marsh area is divided into three major areas: (i) Al Hammar Marshes; (ii) the Central Marshes and (iii) Al Hawizeh Marshes. These three chief marsh zones have been at the centre of the great fluctuations that have been in process over the years. Marsh inhabitants who experienced a mixture of pastoralist, inactive and marsh existence grounded on the periodic growth, and collapse of the marsh waters have been recognized including the Maʿdān (Marsh Arabs) of southern Iraq. The majority of the area of the marshes in Iraq is covered with aquatic plants that are dominated by reed (Pharagmites communis) and reed mace (Typha augustata) in the transient seasonal zone. Situated on the routes of the migratory birds, the marshes are chiefly significant for birds. The marshlands set up a main wintering and staging area for waterfowl travelling between breeding grounds. The environment of the marsh area in Iraq has experienced several kinds of influences. Among such impacts was the influence of the changes in the water supply due to building dams in the upper Mesopotamian plain in Turkey and Iran and the ecocide that Saddam Hussein has implemented when he ordered to dry the marshes. The results of drying the marsh areas have impacted the life of the inhabitants of the marshes in early 1990s; accordingly, the Marsh Arabs have been compulsory to flee their areas. Besides to the engineering workings, their birthplace converted to be one of the chief areas of fighting that overwhelmed southern Iraq in 1991–1993. Owing to the huge loss in the marsh areas, the wildlife and biodiversity have severely influenced. Such impacts were extended outside the borders of Iraq and showed effects on both the regional and the international levels.