Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Inflammatory Cholangitis

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Diseases of the Liver and Biliary Tree

Abstract

Biliary tract infections, also known as cholangitis, are characterized by an inflammation of the bile ducts. Acute cholangitis is a potentially lethal medical emergency characterized by the obstruction and subsequent infection of the biliary tree. Partial or complete obstruction of the bile duct and subsequent infection is generally the primary factor triggering the development of acute cholangitis. Choledocholithiasis, defined as the presence of at least one gallstone in the common bile duct, is the most frequent underlying cause of cholangitis in Western countries. The management of cholangitis has evolved radically over the past century, moving from a purely surgical approach to an endoscopic one. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is currently the treatment of choice to establish biliary drainage and often to remove gallstones.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Lipsett PA, Pitt HA. Acute cholangitis. Front Biosci. 2003;8:s1229–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Andrew DJ, Johnson SE. Acute suppurative cholangitis, a medical and surgical emergency. A review of10- year experience emphasizing early recognition. Am J Gastroenterol. 1970;54(2):141–54.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Shimada H, Nakagawara G, Kobayashi M, Tsuchiya S, Kudo T, Morita S. Pathogenesis and clinical features of acute cholangitis accompanied by shock. Jpn J Surg. 1984;14(4):269–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Boey JH, Way LW. Acute cholangitis. Ann Surg. 1980;191:264–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Yokoe M, Hata J, Takada T, Strasberg SM, Asbun HJ, Wakabayashi G, et al. Tokyo guidelines 2018: diagnostic criteria and severity grading of acute cholecystitis (with viedos). J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018;25:41–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Thompson JE Jr, Pitt HA, Doty JE, Coleman J, Irving C. Broad-spectrum penicillin as an adequate therapy for acute cholangitis. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1990;171(4):275–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Tai DI, Shen FH, Liaw YF. Abnormal pre-drainage serum creatinine as a prognostic indicator in acute cholangitis. Hepato-Gastroenterology. 1992;39(1):47–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Hanau LH, Steigbigel NH. Cholangitis: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment. Curr Clin Top Infect Dis. 1995;15:153–78.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Hanau LH, Steigbigel NH. Acute (ascending) cholangitis. Infect Dis Clin N Am. 2000;14(3):521–46.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Charcot M. De la fievre hepatique symptomatique. Comparison avec la fievre uroseptique. Lecons sur les maladies du foie des voies biliares et des reins. [Of symptomatic hepatic fever. Comparison with uroseptic fever. Lessons on diseases of the liver, biliary tract and kidneys]. Paris: Bourneville et Sevestre; 1877. p. 176–85.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Tokyo Guidelines for the management of acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. Proceedings of a consensus meeting, April 2006, Tokyo, Japan. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg. 2007;14(1):1–121.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Kiriyama S, Takada T, Strasberg SM, et al. New diagnostic criteria and severity assessment of acute cholangitis in revised Tokyo guidelines. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2012;19(5):548–56.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Reynolds BM, Dargan EL. Acute obstructive cholangitis; a distinct clinical syndrome. Ann Surg. 1959;150(2):299–303.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Csendes A, Sepúlveda A, Burdiles P, et al. Common bile duct pressure in patients with common bile duct stones with or without acute suppurative cholangitis. Arch Surg. 1988;123(6):697–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Raper SE, Barker ME, Jones AL, et al. Anatomic correlates of bacterial cholangiovenous reflux. Surgery. 1989;105(3):352–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Csendes A, Fernandez M, Uribe P. Bacteriology of the gallbladder bile in normal subjects. Am J Surg. 1975;129(6):629–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Carpenter HA. Bacterial and parasitic cholangitis. Mayo Clin Proc. 1998;73(5):473–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Sung JY, Costerton JW, Shaffer EA. Defense system in the biliary tract against bacterial infection. Dig Dis Sci. 1992;37(5):689–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Jiang WG, Puntis MC. Immune dysfunction in patients with obstructive jaundice, mediators and implications for treatments. HPB Surg. 1997;10(3):129–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Kalser MH, Cohen R, Arteaga I, et al. Normal viral and bacterial flora of the human small and large intestine. N Engl J Med. 1966;274(10):558–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Plaut AG, Gorbach SL, Nahas L, et al. Studies of intestinal microflora. 3. The microbial flora of human small intestinal mucosa and fluids. Gastroenterology. 1967;53(6):868–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Ding JW, Andersson R, Soltesz V, et al. Obstructive jaundice impairs reticuloendothelial function and promotes bacterial translocation in the rat. J Surg Res. 1994;57(2):238–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Clements WD, Parks R, Erwin P, et al. Role of the gut in the pathophysiology of extrahepatic biliary obstruction. Gut. 1996;39(4):587–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Shands JW, Chun PW. The dispersion of Gram-negative lipopolysaccharide by deoxycholate. J Biol Chem. 1980;225:1221–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Attasaranya S, Fogel EL, Lehman GA. Choledocholithiasis, ascending cholangitis and gallstone pancreatitis. Med Clin North Am. 2008;92:925–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Kinney TP. Management of ascending cholangitis. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am. 2007;17(2):289–306, vi.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Tazuma S. Gallstone disease: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and classification of biliary stones (common bile duct and intrahepatic). Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2006;20(6):1075–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Kaufman HS, Magnuson TH, Lillemoe KD, et al. The role of bacteria in gallbladder and common duct stone formation. Ann Surg. 1989;209(5):584–91, [discussion: 591–2].

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Cetta FM. Bile infection documented as initial event in the pathogenesis of brown pigment biliary stones. Hepatology. 1986;6(3):482–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Imam MH, Talwalkar JA, Lindor KD. Secondary sclerosing cholangitis: pathogenesis, diagnosis and management. Clin Liver Dis. 2013;17(2):269–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Csendes A, Mitru N, Maluenda F, et al. Counts of bacteria and pyocites of choledochal bile in controls and in patients with gallstones or common bile duct stones with or without acute cholangitis. Hepato-Gastroenterology. 1996;43(10):800–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Rana SS, Bhasin DK, Nanda M, et al. Parasitic infestations of the biliary tract. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2007;9(2):156–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Gupta E, Chakravarti A. Viral infections of the biliary tract. Saudi J Gastroenterol. 2008;14(3):158–60.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Yusuf TE, Baron TH. AIDS cholangiopathy. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol. 2004;7(2):111–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Wig JD, Singh K, Chawla YK, et al. Cholangitis due to candidiasis of the extrahepatic biliary tract. HPB Surg. 1998;11(1):51–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Chen LY, Goldberg HI. Sclerosing cholangitis: broad spectrum of radiographic features. Gastrointest Radiol. 1984;9:39–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Kiriyama S, et al. TG13 guidelines for diagnosis and severity grading of acute cholangitis (with videos). J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2013;20:24–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Wada K, et al. Diagnostic criteria and severity assessment of acute cholangitis: Tokyo guidelines. J Hepato-Biliary-Pancreat Surg. 2007;14:52–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Kimura Y, et al. Definitions, pathophysiology, and epidemiology of acute cholangitis and cholecystitis: Tokyo guidelines. J Hepato-Biliary-Pancreat Surg. 2007;14(1):15–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Watanapa P. Recovery patterns of liver function after complete and artial surgical biliary decompression. Am J Surg. 1996;171(2):230–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Korkmaz M, Ünal H, Selcuk H, et al. Extraordinarily elevated serum levels of CA 19-9 and rapid decrease after successful therapy: a case report and review of literature. Turk J Gastroenterol. 2010;21(4):461–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Sulzer JK, Ocuin LM. Cholangitis causes, diagnosis, and management. Surg Clin N Am. 2019;99(2):175–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Umefune G, Kogure H, et al. Procalcitonin is a useful biomarker to predict severe acute cholangitis: a single-center prospective study. J Gastroenterol. 2017;52(6):734–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Lee YS, Cho KB, et al. Procalcitonin as a decision-supporting marker of urgent biliary decompression in acute cholangitis. Dig Dis Sci. 2018;63(9):2474–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Solomkin JS, Mazuski JE, et al. Diagnosis and management of complicated intraabdominal infection in adults and children: guidelines by the Surgical Infection Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(2):133–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Gomi H, Solomkin JS, Schlossberg D, et al. Tokyo guidelines 2018: antimicrobial therapy for acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018;25(1):3–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Ramchandani M, et al. Endoscopic management of acute cholangitis as a result of common bile duct stones. Dig Endosc. 2017;29(Suppl 2):78–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Kiriyama S, et al. Tokyo guidelines 2018: diagnostic criteria and severity grading of acute cholangitis (with videos). J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018;25(1):17–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Soto JA, et al. Detection of choledocholithiasis with MR cholangiography: comparison of three-dimensional fast spin echo and single- and multisection half-fourier rapid acquisition with relaxation enhancement sequences. Radiology. 2000;215:737–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Arrivé L, et al. MRI of cholangitis: traps and tips. Diagn Interv Imaging. 2013;94:757–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Sun Z, et al. Controversy and progress for treatment of acute cholangitis after Tokyo guidelines (TG13). Biosci Trends. 2016;10:22–6. https://doi.org/10.5582/bst.2016.01033.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Meeralam Y, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of EUS compared with MRCP in detecting choledocholithiasis: a meta-analysis of diagnostic test accuracy in head-to-head studies. Gastrointest Endosc. 2017;86(6):986–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Chen YI, Martel M, Barkun AN. Choledocholithiasis: should EUS replace MRCP in patients at intermediate risk? Gastrointest Endosc. 2017;86(6):994–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Gomi H, Solomkin JS, Takada T, Strasberg SM, Pitt HA, Yoshida M, et al. TG13 antimicrobial therapy for acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2013;20:60–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00534-012-0572-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Weber A, Huber W, Kamereck K, Winkle P, Voland P, Weidenbach H, et al. In vitro activity of moxifloxacin and piperacillin/sulbactam against pathogens of acute cholangitis. World J Gastroenterol. 2008;14:3174–8. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.14.3174.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Shenoy SM, Shenoy S, Gopal S, Tantry BV, Baliga S, Jain A. Clinicomicrobiological analysis of patients with cholangitis. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2014;32:157–60. https://doi.org/10.4103/0255-0857.129802.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Salvador VB, Lozada MC, Consunji RJ. Microbiology and antibiotic susceptibility of organisms in bile cultures from patients with and without cholangitis at an Asian academic medical center. Surg Infect. 2011;12:105–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Kiesslich R, Will D, Hahn M, Nafe B, Genitsariotis R, Mäurer M, et al. Ceftriaxone versus levofloxacin for antibiotic therapy in patients with acute cholangitis. Z Gastroenterol. 2003;41:5–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Lee JG. Diagnosis and management of acute cholangitis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2009;6:533–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Zimmer V, Lammert F. Acute bacterial cholangitis. Viszeralmedizin. 2015;31:166–72.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Kogure H, Tsujino T, Yamamoto K, Mizuno S, Yashima Y, Yagioka H, et al. Fever-based antibiotic therapy for acute cholangitis following successful endoscopic biliary drainage. J Gastroenterol. 2011;46:1411–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. van Lent AU, Bartelsman JF, Tytgat GN, Speelman P, Prins JM. Duration of antibiotic therapy for cholangitis after successful endoscopic drainage of the biliary tract. Gastrointest Endosc. 2002;55:518–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Sun Z, Zhu Y, Zhu B, Xu G, Zhang N. Controversy and progress for treatment of acute cholangitis after Tokyo guidelines (TG13). Biosci Trends. 2016;10:22–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, Annane D, Gerlach H, Opal SM, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock, 2012. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39:165–228.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Park TY, Choi JS, Song TJ, Do JH, Choi SH, Oh HC. Early oral antibiotic switch compared with conventional intravenous antibiotic therapy for acute cholangitis with bacteremia. Dig Dis Sci. 2014;59:2790–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Schneider J, De Waha P, Hapfelmeier A, Feihl S, Römmler F, Schlag C, et al. Risk factors for increased antimicrobial resistance: a retrospective analysis of 309 acute cholangitis episodes. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:519–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Lai EC, Mok FP, Tan ES, Lo CM, Fan ST, You KT, et al. Endoscopic biliary drainage for severe acute cholangitis. N Engl J Med. 1992;24:1582–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Umeda J, Itoi T. Current status of preoperative biliary drainage. J Gastroenterol. 2015;50:940–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Takada T, Hanyu F, Kobayashi S, Uchida Y. Percutaneous transhepatic cholangial drainage: direct approach under fluoroscopic control. J Surg Oncol. 1976;8:83–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Saad WE, Wallace MJ, Wojak JC, Kundu S, Cardella JF. Quality improvement guidelines for percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography, biliary drainage, and percutaneous cholecystostomy. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2010;21:789–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Giovannini M, Moutardier V, Pesenti C, Bories E, Lelong B, Delpero JR. Endoscopic ultrasound-guided bilioduodenal anastomosis: a new technique for biliary drainage. Endoscopy. 2001;33:898–900.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Itoi T, Itokawa F, Sofuni A, Kurihara T, Tsuchiya T, Ishii K, et al. Endoscopic ultrasound-guided choledochoduodenostomy in patients with failed endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. World J Gastroenterol. 2008;14:6078–82.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Sharaiha RZ, Khan MA, Kamal F, Tyberg A, Tombazzi CR, Ali B, et al. Efficacy and safety of EUS-guided biliary drainage in comparison with percutaneous biliary drainage when ERCP fails: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2017;85:904–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Vila JJ, Perez-Miranda M, Vazquez-Sequeiros E, Abadia MA, Perez-Millan A, Gonzalez-Huix F, et al. Initial experience with EUS-guided cholangiopancreatography for biliary and pancreatic duct drainage: a Spanish national survey. Gastrointest Endosc. 2012;76:1133–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Itoi T, Tsuyuguchi T, Takada T, et al. TG13 indications and techniques for biliary drainage in acute cholangitis (with videos). J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2013;20(1):71–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Saad WE, Wallace MJ, Wojak JC, et al. Quality improvement guidelines for percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography, biliary drainage, and percutaneous cholecystostomy. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2010;21(6):789–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Burke DR, Lewis CA, Cardella JF, et al. Quality improvement guidelines for percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography and biliary drainage. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2003;14(9 Pt 2):S243–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Saltzstein EC, Peacock JB, Mercer LC. Early operation for acute biliary tract stone disease. Surgery. 1983;94:704–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Lai EC, Mok FP, Tan ES, et al. Endoscopic biliary drainage for severe acute cholangitis. N Engl J Med. 1992;326(24):1582–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Sun Z, Zhu Y, Zhu B, et al. Controversy and progress for treatment of acute cholangitis after Tokyo guidelines (TG13). Biosci Trends. 2016;10(1):22–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Atstupens K, Plaudis H, Fokins V, et al. Safe laparoscopic clearance of the common bile duct in emergently admitted patients with choledocholithiasis and cholangitis. Korean J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg. 2016;20(2):53–60.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Mukai S, Itoi T. Selective biliary cannulation techniques for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography procedures and prevention of post-endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography pancreatitis. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;10:709–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Lee DW, Chan AC, Lam YH, et al. Biliary decompression by nasobiliary catheter or biliary stent in acute suppurative cholangitis: a prospective randomized trial. Gastrointest Endosc. 2002;56(3):361–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Park SY, Park CH, Cho SB, et al. The safety and effectiveness of endoscopic biliary decompression by plastic stent placement in acute suppurative cholangitis compared with nasobiliary drainage. Gastrointest Endosc. 2008;68(6):1076–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Mukai S, Itoi T, Baron TH, et al. Indications and techniques of biliary drainage for acute cholangitis in updated Tokyo guidelines 2018. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2017;24(10):537–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Tarnasky PR, Cunningham JT, Hawes RH, et al. Transpapillary stenting of proximal biliary strictures: does biliary sphincterotomy reduce the risk of postprocedure pancreatitis? Gastrointest Endosc. 1997;45(1):46–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Hui CK, Lai KC, Wong WM, et al. A randomised controlled trial of endoscopic sphincterotomy in acute cholangitis without common bile duct stones. Gut. 2002;51(2):245–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Lee MH, Tsou YK, Lin CH, et al. Predictors of re-bleeding after endoscopic hemostasis for delayed post-endoscopic sphincterotomy bleeding. World J Gastroenterol. 2016;22(11):3196–201.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Freeman ML. Complications of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: avoidance and management. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am. 2012;22(3):567–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Mukai S, Itoi T, Baron TH, et al. Indications and techniques of biliary drainage for acute cholangitis in updated Tokyo guidelines 2018. Hepatobiliary Pancreatic Sci. 2017;24(10):537–49.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Wang K, Zhu J, Xing L, et al. Assessment of efficacy and safety of EUS-guided biliary drainage: a systematic review. Gastrointest Endosc. 2016;83(6):1218–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicine, Gastroenterology Unit, St. Anthony Hospital, Azienda Ospedale-Università, Padova, Italy

    Erik Rosa-Rizzotto, Diego Caroli & Laura Scribano

Authors
  1. Erik Rosa-Rizzotto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Diego Caroli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Laura Scribano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Erik Rosa-Rizzotto .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Scientific Consultant, Scientific Institute for Research, Hospitalization and Healthcare (IRCCS) Negrar, Verona, Italy

    Annarosa Floreani

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Rosa-Rizzotto, E., Caroli, D., Scribano, L. (2021). Inflammatory Cholangitis. In: Floreani, A. (eds) Diseases of the Liver and Biliary Tree. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65908-0_12

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65908-0_12

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-65907-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-65908-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation