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The ‘Austrian School of International Law’: The Influence of Austrian International Lawyers on the Formation of the Present International Legal Order

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Abstract

Is there an Austrian cuisine? The great variety of dishes served in different Austrian regions would call for a negative answer. Is there an Italian cuisine? Anyone who has had the opportunity to compare dishes from Piedmont with those from Lombardy or Venetia, from Florence with those from Rome or even from Naples with those from Sicily—where again every part has its specialty—will probably deny this. Yet you can find definitions of ‘Italian cuisine’ in any encyclopaedia and quite a number of recipe books on Italian cuisine in any bookstore. The same is true for the Austrian cuisine.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    A yeasted flatbread generally topped with tomato sauce and cheese and baked in an oven.

  2. 2.

    Pasta is made from an unleavened dough of a durum wheat flour mixed with water or eggs and formed into sheets or various shapes, then boiled.

  3. 3.

    Ladyfingers dipped in coffee, layered with a whipped mixture of eggs, sugar, and mascarpone cheese, flavored with cocoa.

  4. 4.

    Strong black coffee.

  5. 5.

    Parmigiano cheese.

  6. 6.

    Red wine produced in the Chianti region, in central Tuscany.

  7. 7.

    Bread crumbed and fried veal or pork scallop.

  8. 8.

    Boiled beef with garnishes.

  9. 9.

    Apple strudel.

  10. 10.

    Cut-up and sugared pancake with raisins.

  11. 11.

    A sweet soufflé served as a dessert.

  12. 12.

    A spicy cheese spread made with butter and cottage cheese.

  13. 13.

    Dry white wine grown primarily in the Eastern parts of Austria.

  14. 14.

    Hans Kelsen, Reine Rechtslehre, (1st ed. Leipzig and Vienna: Deuticke 1934); 2nd ed. Vienna: Deuticke 1960; Pure Theory of Law English translation of the 1960 edition by Max Knight (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967).

  15. 15.

    Völkerrecht und Landesrecht, Leipzig: C.L. Hirschfeld, 1899.

  16. 16.

    Grudlinien der Philsophie des Rechts (Berlin: Nicolaische Buchhandlung, 1821 [1820]). Transl. by T. M. Knox, 1942; transl. by H. B. Nisbet, ed. Allen W. Wood, 1991.

  17. 17.

    Otto von Bismarck, Reden 1847-1869 [Speeches, 1847-1869], ed., Wilhelm Schüßler, vol. 10, Bismarck: Die gesammelten Werke [Bismarck: Collected Works], (ed. Hermann von Petersdorff. Berlin: Otto Stolberg, 1924-35), pp. 139-40. (Translation by Jeremiah Riemer)

  18. 18.

    In his Six livres de la République, Paris: Jacques de Puys, 1576.

  19. 19.

    According to Bruno Simma, The Contribution of Alfred Verdross to the Theory of International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 33-54. at pp. 44 et seqs.: ‘the monism represented by Verdross rests upon […] a specific adoption of the universalistic conception of international law […]. On this basis, it advocates the unity of international and domestic law, with international law enjoying primacy. The roots of this theory emerged almost simultaneously in The Netherlands, France and Austria.’

  20. 20.

    Ibid., at p. 45.

  21. 21.

    In this regard, he followed Léon Duguit (1859-1928), whose most renowned student, Georges Scelle (1878-1961), reached the conclusion that international law overrides any municipal law conflicting with it; Manuel elementaire de droit international public (Paris: Domat-Monchristien,1943), p. 21: ‘Le droit international prime le droit étatique’.

  22. 22.

    Cf. Verdross, Völkerrecht, 5th ed. (Vienna: Springer, 1964), pp. 111 et seqs.

  23. 23.

    Cf. Verdross, Völkerrecht, 5th ed. 1964, pp. 13 et seqs. (‘Die Rechtsidee’).

  24. 24.

    Leibniz, Letter to Remond, 26 August 1714; cf. Verdross, Abendländische Rechtsphilosophie, 2nd ed. (Wien: Springer, 1963), p. 137.

  25. 25.

    Cf. ibid., pp. 69 et seqs.

  26. 26.

    Cf. ibid., pp. 126 et seqs.

  27. 27.

    Cf. Verdross, Abendländische Rechtsphilosophie, 2nd ed. 1963, pp. 48 et seqs.

  28. 28.

    Cf. ibid., pp. 62 et seqs.

  29. 29.

    Cf. ibid., pp. 71 et seqs.

  30. 30.

    Cf. ibid., pp. 92 et seqs.

  31. 31.

    Cf. ibid., pp. 112 et seqs.

  32. 32.

    Cf. ibid., pp. 128 et seqs.

  33. 33.

    Cf. ibid., pp. 138 et seqs.

  34. 34.

    Die Anfänge des neueren Natur- und Völkerrechts. Studien zu den Controversiae illustres des Ferdinand Vasquius (1559), (Bern: Verlag Paul Haupt, 1949).

  35. 35.

    Johannes Althusius als Fortsetzer der Schule von Salamanca. Untersuchungen zur Ideengeschichte des Rechtsstaates und zur altprotestantischen Naturrechtslehre, Freiburger rechts- und staatswissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, Vol. 5 (Karlsruhe: C. F. Müller 1955).

  36. 36.

    Simma, The Contribution of Alfred Verdross to the Theory of International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 33-54, at pp. 39 et seq.

  37. 37.

    Simma, The Contribution of Alfred Verdross to the Theory of International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 33-54, at pp. 40.

  38. 38.

    A leading figure of this movement was Pasquale Stanislao Mancini (1817-1888) who laid down the principles of this concept in his Prelezione al corso di dritto internazionale e marittimo entitled Della nazionalità come fondamento del dritto delle genti (Turino: Eredi Botta, 1851). The well-understood core of ideas can be found today in the in the right of all peoples to self-determination, as contained in the United Nations Charter and other international instruments like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which are considered to collectively constitute an International Bill of Human Rights.

  39. 39.

    ‘The Mind of the world exercises its right in the history of the world which is the world's court of judgement.’ Hegel, Philosophy of Right [Law], (Original German ed. 1821 Berlin: Nicolaische Buchhandlung), § 341.

  40. 40.

    Jellinek, Allgemeine Staatslehre, 1st ed. (Berlin: O. Häring, 1900).

  41. 41.

    Cf. Jens Kersten, Georg Jellinek, in: Enzyklopädie der Rechtspilosophie, http://www.enzyklopaedie-rechtsphilosophie.net/Joomla/components/com_joomlawiki/index.php?title=Jellinek,_Georg.

  42. 42.

    Bruno Simma, The Contribution of Alfred Verdross to the Theory of International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 33-54., at p. 37.

  43. 43.

    Cf. Herbert Schambeck, Alfred Verdross als Rechtsphilosoph und die Wiener Rechtstheoretische Schule, in: Peter Fischer/Margit Maria Karollus/Sigmar Stadlmeier (eds.), Die Welt im Spannungsfeld zwischen Regionalisierung und Globalisierung. Festschrift für Heribert Franz Koeck, (Wien: Linde 2009), 527-543, at 540 et seq.

  44. 44.

    Cf. Verdross, Abendländische Rechtsphilosophie, 2nd ed. (Vienna: Springer, 1963), pp. 78 et seqs.

  45. 45.

    The influence of Francisco de Vitoria on Alfred Verdross and his ‘school’ is dealt with in detail in: Heribert Franz Koeck, The Impact of Francisco de Vitoria’s International Legal Doctrine Upon the ‘Vienna School of International Law and Legal Philosophy’ of the Twentieth Century, in: José María Beneyto/Carmen Román Vaca (eds.), New Perspectives on Francisco de Vitoria. Does International Law lie at the heart of the origin of the modern world? (Madrid: CEU Ediciones, 2014), Cap. 4, pp. 53-131. This study is followed here where appropriate.

  46. 46.

    ‘To dwell on the topic of the ideas and forces which had an influence on Verdross’s thinking, […] Catholicism […] provided a fitting, if not essential, foundation for his natural law philosophy as well as for his universalistic view of international law.’ Simma, The Contribution of Alfred Verdross to the Theory of International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 33-54, at p. 37. However, Verdross remained reserved vis-à-vis what has been described by Carty ‘[t]he reactionary quality of political Christianity […] central to the Austrian regime of 1934-38, similar to the authoritarian regimes in Portugal and Spain. The Vatican, the Episcopate and Clergy of Austria stood relatively firmly behind the regime. It wished to put the socio-economic clock back to an ideal medieval Stande society where each knew his place. The social basis of this political Catholicism was among farmers, small business people and particularly, the dominant civil service.’ Anthony Carty, Alfred Verdross and Othmar Spann: German Romantic Nationalism, National Socialism and International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 78-97, at pp. 93 et seq. It is therefore completely unfounded that Carty call this ‘very much Verdross’ world’. Ibid., p. 94.

  47. 47.

    Cf., e.g., Verdross, Grundlagen und Grundsätze des Völkerrechts in christlicher Schau, in: Schönere Zukunft, Vol. XIII, No. 16, 1938, pp. 385-387; id., Die Entstehung der christlichen Völkerrechtslehre und ihre Entfaltung durch die Päpste sowie durch das Zweite Vatikanische Konzil, ‘Ruf und Antwort’, Schriftenreihe des Cartellverbandes der katholischen österreichischen Studentenverbindungen, des Cartellverbandes der Katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen und des Schweizerischen Studentenvereins, Heft 8, Vienna 1969; and id., Erneuerung und Entfaltung der klassischen Völkerrechtslehre durch Pius XII., in: Herbert Schambeck (ed.), Pius XII. zum Gedächtnis (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1977), pp. 613-626.

  48. 48.

    It is therefore difficult to understand how some authors then and afterwards could allege an affinity of Verdross’ writings to the National Socialist concept of international law. Cf., in this regard, Anthony Carty, Alfred Verdross and Othmar Spann: German Romantic Nationalism, National Socialism and International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 78-97, who relies on Ernst Engelberg, Les bases idéologiques de la nouvelle conception de droit international de M. Alfred von Verdross, RGDIP 46, 1939, pp. 37-52, and also refers to Eduard Bristler, Die Völkerrechtslehre des Nationalsozialismus, (Zurich: Europa Verlag, 1938). Indeed, Carty had to concede, at p. 94 of the same article, that Verdross tried ‘from the very outset to reactivate the cultural power of a 16th century Spanish catholic intellectual tradition which he sees threatened by modernist, Enlightenment individualism. He states explicitly the need to bridge the cultural void […] from the 16th century to the [twentieth century]. The whole structure of the Verfassung is built around this theme from pages 12 to 42. A criticism of 19th century positivism is followed by a return to a review of classical international law with Suarez and Grotius. The key argument after page 28 is about the renaissance of classical international law, after its having been shaken by positivism.’, And, again, at p. 95: ‘How remote the world of […] Verdross was from the ethos of the survival of the fittest (social Darwinism) of National Socialism is stressed by numerous authors […]’ Rather, Verdross had the ‘desire to replace a social Darwinist struggle for life with a supposedly natural, harmonious society.’

  49. 49.

    ‘Through his long-standing membership of the International Law Commission, Verdross found himself in a position where he could contribute many of his ideas to the international codification process even more directly than through the influence of his scholarly writing. As a judge of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, he participated in the formative phase of the most advanced system for the protection of human rights worldwide. Within the German-speaking countries, Alfred Verdross shaped international legal thinking in a way unparalleled in the past and, almost certainly, also in the future. As such his work forms an influential part of the history of European legal and social thought of this [the twentieth] century.’ Simma, The Contribution of Alfred Verdross to the Theory of International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 33-54, at p. 54.

  50. 50.

    United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 500, p. 95.

  51. 51.

    The other Austrian scholar who contributed to the renaissance of natural law thinking, not so much in the area of international law, but in the area of domestic law, was not primarily a jurist but a theologian, namely Johannes Messner. Cf. his opus magnum Das Naturrecht. Handbuch der Gesellschaftsethik, Staatsethik und Wirtschaftsethik, 7th ed. (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 1984).

  52. 52.

    In addition to his Abendländische Rechtsphilosophie (Occidental Legal Philosophy) which has repeatedly been quoted, cf. Verdross, Statisches und dynamisches Naturrecht, (Freiburg: Rombach, 1971), showing that natural law is not static but dynamic and therefore suited to correspond to the need of a developing society.

  53. 53.

    Apart from his main opus, Völkerrecht (International Law), the first edition of which was published before World War II, and four further editions after the war, cf. Verdross, Die Quellen des universellen Völkerrechts, 1973 (a system of the sources of international law).

  54. 54.

    Cf. Verdross, Der klassische Begriff des bonum commune und seine Entfaltung zum bonum commune humanitatis, 28 Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht (1977), pp. 143-162.

  55. 55.

    Berlin 1937.

  56. 56.

    The last one was the 5th edition (Vienna: Springer, 1964).

  57. 57.

    Vienna: Springer, 1946; 2nd edition 1948.

  58. 58.

    Vienna: Springer, 1958; 2nd edition 1963.

  59. 59.

    Freiburg: Rombach, 1971.

  60. 60.

    Universelles Völkerrecht: Theorie und Praxis (in collaboration with Bruno Simma), 1st ed., 1976; 3rd (revised) ed. 1984 by Bruno Simma (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot).

  61. 61.

    Simma, The Contribution of Alfred Verdross to the Theory of International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 33-54., at p. 34.

  62. 62.

    The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938, later interpreted as a mere occupation in order to be able to maintain the claim to legal continuity between the First Republic (1918-1938) and the Second Republic (from 1945 onwards).

  63. 63.

    Between 1945 and 1955, the supreme authority was exercised by the Allied Council composed of the representatives of the four occupying powers; its right to veto was, however, restricted to constitutional laws, and its exercise required a majority in the Council.

  64. 64.

    Felix Czeike (ed.), Historisches Lexikon Wien. Band 6: Ergänzungsband, (Vienna: Kremayr & Scheriau, 1992-1997, 2004), 235.

  65. 65.

    Völkerrecht, 5th ed. Vienna 1964.

  66. 66.

    Pp. 31-94.

  67. 67.

    Stephan Verosta, Iohannes Chrysostomos – Staatsphilosoph und Geschichtstheologe (Johannes Chrysostomos, Philosopher of State and Theologian of History), Graz-Vienna-Cologne: Styria, 1960.

  68. 68.

    Early and often influential theologians of the Church who were attributed this epitheton.

  69. 69.

    Die völkerrechtliche Praxis der Donaumonarchie von 1859 bis 1918: Eine Auswahl von Dokumenten, 2 vols., Vienna: Austrian Academy of Science, 1996 (with Ignaz Seidl-Hohenveldern).

  70. 70.

    Cf., in particular, Die dauernde Neutralität. Ein Grundriss, (Vienna: Manzsche Verlags- und Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1967).

  71. 71.

    Stephan Verosta, Theorie und Realität von Bündnissen: Heinrich Lammasch, Karl Renner und der Zweibund (1897-1914), Vienna: Europa-Verlag1971, which – notwithstanding the limitation to the period of 1897to1914 made in the title – examines the Austro(-Hungarian) domestic and foreign policy since the middle of the nineteenth century.

  72. 72.

    United Nations, Treaty Series, vo1. 596, 261.

  73. 73.

    Völkerrecht, 8th ed., Cologne-Berlin-Bonn-Munich 1994.

  74. 74.

    Das Recht der Internationalen Organisationen einschließlich der supranationalen Gemeinschaften, 5th ed. Cologne-Berlin-Bonn-Munich 1992 (with Gerhard Loibl).

  75. 75.

    It adopted the Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of State Property, Archives and Debts of 1983, Official Records of the United Nations Conference on Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts, vol. II (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.94.V.6).

  76. 76.

    For a list of Zemanek’s publications see Lilly Sucharipa-Behrmann in: Gerhard Hafner, Winfried Lang, Hanspeter Neuhold & Lilly Sucharipa-Behrmann (eds.), Völkerrecht zwischen normativem Anspruch und politischer Realität, Festschrift für Karl Zemanek, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 1994, p. 523.

  77. 77.

    See, in the 5th ed., pp. 594 et seqs.

  78. 78.

    It adopted the Vienna Convention on the Succession of States in Respect to Treaties, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1946, p. 3.

  79. 79.

    It adopted the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations, Official Records of the United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations, vol. II (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.94.V.5).

  80. 80.

    Südtirol als Völkerrechtsproblem, (Graz-Vienna: Styria, 1962).

  81. 81.

    See Alfred Verdross, Die Sicherung von ausländischen Privatrechten aus Abkommen zur wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung mit Schiedsklauseln, Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, Vol. 18, Issue 4, 1957/58, pp. 635-651; id., Quasi-International Agreements and International Economic Transactions, in: Yearbook of World Affairs, Vol. 18, 1964, pp. 230-247; and id., Gibt es Verträge, die weder dem innerstaatlichen noch dem Völkerrecht unterliegen?, in: Zeitschrift für Rechtsvergleichung, 1966, pp. 129-134.

  82. 82.

    Peter Fischer, Die internationale Konzession, Vienna: Springer 1973.

  83. 83.

    And which formed what Gaius had called the ius gentium.

  84. 84.

    See the extensive case law (at present 169 pending and 251 concluded cases) as developed by the numerous arbitral tribunals under the system of the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), where private foreign investors and host States are litigating on an equal, namely international footing. As to more details see https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=ListCases.

  85. 85.

    See the Libyan arbitration cases in the late seventies of the last century by Peter Fischer, LIAMCO-Libya, Petroleum Concessions Arbitration (1977), in: Rudolf Bernhardt (ed.), Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Vol. III, Amsterdam et al.: North Holland, 1997, p. 208-211. See also the case Texaco/Calasiatic v Libyan Arab Republic, in: International Legal Materials XVII (1978), p. 1321.

  86. 86.

    See Karl Josef Partsch, Individuals in international law, in: Rudolf Bernhardt (ed.), Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Vol. II, Amsterdam et al.: North Holland, pp. 957-962.

  87. 87.

    Heribert Franz Koeck, Die völkerrechtliche Stellung des Heiligen Stuhls. Dargestellt an seinen Beziehungen zu Staaten und internationalen Organisationen, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 1975.

  88. 88.

    United Nations Treaty Series, Vol. 500, p. 95. Cf. article 14 (a) and (b) and article 16, No. 3.

  89. 89.

    It appeared in: Ronald St. J. Macdonald & Douglas Millar Johnston (eds.), The Structure and Process of International Law: Modern Essays in Legal Philosophy, Doctrine and Theory, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1983, pp. 17-50.

  90. 90.

    Heribert Franz Koeck, Recht in der pluralistischen Gesellschaft, Vienna: Manz, 1998.

  91. 91.

    See Wolfgang Benedek/Hubert Isak/Renate Kicker, Foreword to id., Development and developing international Law and European law. Essays in honour of Konrad Ginther on the occasion of his 65th birthday, Frankfurt/Main etc.: Peter Lang Verlag, 1999, pp. xi-xiv.

  92. 92.

    See Michael Geistlinger/Sarah Fussek (eds.), Umweltrecht in Mittel- und Osteuropa im internationalen und europäischen Kontext: Festgabe für Henn-Jüri Uibopuu zum 75. Geburtstag, Berlin: Wissenschaftsverlag, 2004.

  93. 93.

    See Mathias Vogl, Franz Matscher zum 80. Geburtstag – Dank und Würdigung, in: Armin Bammer/Gerhart Holzinger/Matthias Vogl/Gregor Wenda (eds.), Rechtsschutz gestern – heute – morgen. Festgabe zum 80. Geburtstag von Rudolf Machacek und Franz Matscher, Vienna: Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, pp. 31-35.

  94. 94.

    See Gerhard Hafner/Franz Matscher/Kirsten Schmalenbach (eds.), Völkerrecht und die Dynamik der Menschenrechte. Liber Amicorum Wolfram Karl, Vienna: Facultas, 2012, pp. 553-554.

  95. 95.

    Sigmar Stadlmeier, Völkerrecht, 2 vols, 8th ed. (Vienna: LexisNexis, 2017).

  96. 96.

    Margit Maria Hintersteininger Der Kosovo-Konflikt und die Renaissance der bellum iustum-Doktrin, in: 99 Wiener Blätter zur Friedensforschung 2/1999, 24-30.

  97. 97.

    Vgl. Franz Leidenmühler, Kollabierter Staat und Völkerrechtsordnung. Zur Aktualität der Westfälischen Ordnung, entwickelt an Fragen des Wegfalls effektiver Staatsgewalt. Neue Juristische Monographien, Bd. 62 (Vienna: Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, 2011).

  98. 98.

    At p. 357.

  99. 99.

    For more recent publications on the life and work of Alfred Verdross, cf. Ludwig Adamovic, Alfred Verdross – ein Lebensbild, in: Herbert Miehsler/Erhard Mock/Bruno Simma/Ilmar Tammelo (eds.), Ius humaitatis, Festschrift für Alfred Verdross, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1980, pp. 3-7; Heribert Franz Koeck, Leben und Werk des österreichischen Rechtsgelehrten Alfred Verdross, in: 42 Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht 1991, pp. 31-57; id., Alfred Verdross – Ein österreichischer Rechtsgelehrter von internationaler Bedeutung. Schriftenreihe der Niederösterreichischen Juristischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 56, 1991; id, Vita ed opera del giurista austriaco Alfred Verdross, in: Otto Kresten/Adam Wandruszka (eds.), 34/35 Römische Historische Mitteilungen 1992/93, pp. 299-326.; Bruno Simma, The Contribution of Alfred Verdross to the Theory of International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 33-54; Ignaz Seidl-Hohenveldern, Alfred Verdross (1890-1980). Biographical Note with Bibliography, in: European Journal of International Law 6, 1995, pp. 103-115. See also, especially in connection with the topic dealt with in this paper, Schambeck, Alfred Verdross als Rechtsphilosoph und die Wiener Rechtstheoretische Schule, in: Peter Fischer/Margit Maria Karollus/Sigmar Stadlmeier (eds.), Die Welt im Spannungsfeld zwischen Regionalisierung und Globalisierung. Festschrift für Heribert Franz Koeck, Vienna: Linde Verlag, 2009, 527-543; Heribert Franz Koeck, Alfred Verdross – A Visionary of Contemporary Doctrine and Practice of International Law, in: Studia Iuridica Torunensia, 8/2011, pp. 7-33; Heribert Franz Koeck, Alfred Verdross – Sein wissenschaftliches Werk. Eine Einführung aus Anlass der Sammlung seiner Schriften, in: Heribert Franz Koeck/Herbert Schambeck (eds.), Alfred Verdross – Gesammelte Schriften, 4 vols, Vol. I, xxxi-cxviii.

  100. 100.

    Heribert Franz Koeck, The Impact of Francisco de Vitoria’s International Legal Doctrine Upon the ‘Vienna School of International Law and Legal Philosophy’ of the Twentieth Century, in: José María Beneyto/Carmen Román Vaca (eds.), New Perspectives on Francisco de Vitoria. Does International Law lie at the heart of the origin of the modern world? Madrid: CEU Ediciones, 2014, pp. 53-131.

  101. 101.

    Namely at the University of Vienna, the Karl-Franzens University of Graz, the Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck, the Paris Lodron University of Salzburg and the Johannes Kepler University of Linz.

  102. 102.

    Bruno Simma, Das Reziprozitätselement im Zustandekommen völkerrechtlicher Verträge, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 1972. Earlier, Simma had already published a book on reciprocity in international customary law, Das Reziprozitätselement in der Entstehung des Völkergewohnheitsrechts, München: Wilhelm Fink, 1970.

  103. 103.

    Universelles Völkerrecht, 1st ed. (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1976).

  104. 104.

    Bruno Simma (ed.), Charta der Vereinten Nationen. Kommentar, München: Beck, 1991; Bruno Simma et al. (eds.) Commentary on the Charter of the United Nations, New York: Oxford University Press, 1991, 3rd ed. 2012.

  105. 105.

    Bruno Simma, The Contribution of Alfred Verdross to the Theory of International Law, in: European Journal of International Law, 6, 1995, pp. 33-54, at p. 34.

  106. 106.

    Ibid., at p. 38.

  107. 107.

    ICJ Reports 2010, p. 403, at pp. 478 et seqs.

  108. 108.

    ‘The underlying rationale of the Court’s approach reflects an old, tired view of international law, which takes the adage, famously expressed in the “Lotus” Judgment, according to which restrictions on the independence of States cannot be presumed because of the consensual nature of the international legal order (‘Lotus’, Judgment No. 9, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10, p. 18). As the Permanent Court did in that case (ibid., pp. 19-21), the Court has concluded in the present Opinion that, in relation to a specific act, it is not necessary to demonstrate a permissive rule so long as there is no prohibition. In this respect, in a contemporary international legal order which is strongly influenced by ideas of public law, the Court’s reasoning on this point is obsolete. […B]y upholding the Lotus principle, the Court fails to seize a chance to move beyond this anachronistic, extremely consensualist vision of international law. The Court could have considered the scope of the question from an approach which does not, in a formalistic fashion, equate the absence of a prohibition with the existence of a permissive rule […]’ Ibid., at pp. 478 et seq.

  109. 109.

    ‘In this light, I believe that the General Assembly’s request deserves a more comprehensive answer, assessing both permissive and prohibitive rules of international law. This would have included a deeper analysis of whether the principle of self-determination or any other rule (perhaps expressly mentioning remedial secession) permit or even warrant independence (via secession) of certain peoples/territories. Having said this, I do not consider it an appropriate exercise of my judicial role to examine these arguments in extenso; therefore, on this point, I shall content myself simply with declaring that the Court could have delivered a more intellectually satisfying Opinion, and one with greater relevance as regards the international legal order as it has evolved into its present form, had it not interpreted the scope of the question so restrictively. To treat these questions more extensively would have demonstrated the Court’s awareness of the present architecture of international law.’ Ibid., at p. 480.

  110. 110.

    Ibid., at p. 38.

  111. 111.

    Hummer, p. 357.

  112. 112.

    Hummer, p. 357.

  113. 113.

    Article 42 Paragraph 1 TEU: ‘1. The common security and defense policy shall be an integral part of the common foreign and security policy. It shall provide the Union with an operational capacity drawing on civilian and military assets. The Union may use them on missions outside the Union for peace-keeping, conflict prevention and strengthening international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. The performance of these tasks shall be undertaken using capabilities provided by the Member States.’

    Article 43 Paragraph 1 TEU: ‘The tasks referred to in Article 42(1), in the course of which the Union may use civilian and military means, shall include joint disarmament operations, humanitarian and rescue tasks, military advice and assistance tasks, conflict prevention and peace-keeping tasks, tasks of combat forces in crisis management, including peace-making and post-conflict stabilisation. All these tasks may contribute to the fight against terrorism, including by supporting third countries in combating terrorism in their territories.’ – See Gunter Hauser, Politische Bildung im Österreichischen Bundesheer. Truppenbeteiligungen Österreichs. Landesverteidigungsakademie Vienna, January 2016.

  114. 114.

    Völkerrecht, 5th ed., Vienna: Springer, 1964, p. 131, with reference to Cornelius van Bynkershoek, Quaestionum iuris publici libri duo (1737), II, cap 10: ‘Hanc si tollis, tollis [ … ] ipsum ius gentium’.

  115. 115.

    Presently, the official name of the Foreign Office is ‘Federal Ministry for Europe, Integration and Foreign Affairs’, but in recent years the designation has slightly varied with the successive governments.

  116. 116.

    Völkerrecht, 5th ed., Vienna: Springer, 1964.

  117. 117.

    Universelles Völkerrecht, 1st ed. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 1976, 3rd ed. ibid., 1984.

  118. 118.

    Völkerrecht, 10th ed. Cologne-Berlin-Bonn-Munich: Carl Heymans, 2005.

  119. 119.

    Das Recht der internationalen Organisationen einschließlich der supranationalen Gemeinschaften, 5th ed. Cologne-Berlin-Bonn-Munich: Carl Heymans, 1992.

  120. 120.

    Völkerrecht, 6th ed., Vienna: Linde, 2004.

  121. 121.

    Heribert Franz Koeck/Peter Fischer, Das Recht der internationalen Organisationen, 3rd ed. Vienna: Linde, 1997.

  122. 122.

    Österreichisches Handbuch des Völkerrechts, (Vienna: Manz, 1st ed. 1983, 4th ed. 2004).

  123. 123.

    5th ed., (Vienna: Manz, 2013).

  124. 124.

    Europarecht, 1st ed. (Frankfurt/M.: Metzner 1984), 5th ed. (Neuwied: Luchterhand, 1996).

  125. 125.

    Michael Schweitzer/Waldemar Hummer/Walter Obwexer, Europarecht. Das Recht der Europäischen Union, (Vienna: Manz, 2007).

  126. 126.

    Europarecht, 1st ed. (Eisenstadt: Prugg-Verlag, 1986), The 4th ed., Vienna: Linde, 2002, was co-authored by Margit Maria Karollus.

  127. 127.

    Europarecht, 6th ed. (Vienna: Manz, 2008).

  128. 128.

    Recht der Europäischen Union, 1st ed. (Vienna: Manz, 2013), 2nd ed. ibid. 2019.

  129. 129.

    Europarecht. Die Rechtsordnung der Europäischen Union (Linz: Pedell Wissenschaftsverlag, 3rd ed., 2017).

  130. 130.

    EU-Recht, 2nd ed. (Vienna: Manz, 2018).

  131. 131.

    Grundkurs Europarecht, 4th ed. (Munich: Beck, 2016).

  132. 132.

    Heribert Franz Koeck, Recht in der pluralistischen Gesellschaft, Vienna: Manz 1998.

  133. 133.

    Reine Rechtslehre, 2nd ed. Vienna 1960.

  134. 134.

    The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the United Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.

  135. 135.

    As quoted by Rosalyn Higgins, The development of international law through the political organs of the United Nations, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963.

  136. 136.

    Italics supplied.

  137. 137.

    Cf. Charter of the United Nations, Preamble, paragraphs 1, 2 and 4.

  138. 138.

    Cf. Charter of the United Nations, Preamble, paragraph 3. Italics supplied.

  139. 139.

    Cf. Albert Bleckmann, Decolonisation, in: Rudolf Bernhardt (ed.) Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Vol. I, (Amsterdam etc.: North Holland, 1992), pp. 972-976.

  140. 140.

    Cf. Arghyrios A. Fatouros, Developing States, in: ibid., pp. 1017-1024.

  141. 141.

    According to Verdross, only international law based on considerations of justice could fulfil this task. Cf. Alfred Verdross/Heribert Franz Koeck, Natural Law: The Tradition of Universal Reason and Authority, in: MacDonald/Johnston (eds), The Structure and Process of International Law (1983), pp. 17-50.

  142. 142.

    Cf. Christian Tomuschat, New International Economic Order, in: Bernhardt (ed.) Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Vol. III (Amsterdam: North Hollannd 1997), pp. 578-582.

  143. 143.

    Cf. Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, in: Bernhardt (ed.) Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Vol. I, (Amsterdam: North Hollannd 1992), 561-566.

  144. 144.

    Cf. Peter Fischer, Gestaltwandel im Internationalen Wirtschaftsrecht, in: Waldemar Hummer (ed.), Paradigmenwechsel im Völkerrecht zur Jahrtausendwende (Vienna: Manz, 2002), pp. 209-233.

  145. 145.

    Cf. Heribert Franz Koeck, Legalität und Legitimität der Anwendung militärischer Gewalt. Betrachtungen zum Gewaltmonopol der Vereinten Nationen und seinen Grenzen, in: Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht, 54, 1999, pp. 133-160.

  146. 146.

    No. 138.

  147. 147.

    No. 139.

  148. 148.

    See Peter Hilpold, The Responsibility to Protect (R2p): A New Paradigm of International Law? Leiden-Boston: Brill & Nijhoff, 2014.

  149. 149.

    Cf. Heribert Franz Koeck, Legalität und Legitimität der Anwendung militärischer Gewalt. Betrachtungen zum Gewaltmonopol der Vereinten Nationen und seinen Grenzen, in: Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht, Vol. 54, 1999, pp. 133-160; Heribert Franz Koeck Die humanitäre Intervention, in: Gustav Gustenau (ed.), Humanitäre militärische Intervention zwischen Legalität und Legitimität, Tagungsband des Instituts für Internationale Friedenssicherung, Vienna 2000, pp. 25-58.

  150. 150.

    Ronald St. J. Macdonald/Douglas M. Johnston (eds.), The Structure and Process of International Law: Modern Essays in Legal Philosophy, Doctrine and Theory, (Den Haag–Boston–Lancaster: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983), pp. 17-50.

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Koeck, H.F. (2021). The ‘Austrian School of International Law’: The Influence of Austrian International Lawyers on the Formation of the Present International Legal Order. In: Hilpold, P. (eds) European International Law Traditions. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52028-1_3

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52028-1_3

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  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-52028-1

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