Abstract
This chapter examines hypothesized dispersal events between Africa and Eurasia involving non-cercopithecoid catarrhines, particularly hominoid apes, and reviews the tectonic and climatic events that may have had a role in shaping them. All available evidence points to hominoid origins in Africa by the latest Oligocene, and the earliest evidence for apes outside of Africa in Eurasia occurs at ~17–16 Ma following a tectonic event at ~19 Ma that resulted in a landbridge between these continents through the Arabian Peninsula. Following their initial dispersal into Eurasia, the estimated number of subsequent dispersals between Africa, Asia, and Europe is dependent on the hypothesized phylogeny of these fossil apes. Here, we examined several recent phylogenetic hypotheses that suggest anywhere between one and four hominoid dispersal events between Africa and Eurasia, and a minimum of zero to two ape dispersals between Europe and Asia. The arrival of pongines, and possibly other apes, in Asia most likely occurred during or right after the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum (~17–15 Ma), and the extinction of many Asian taxa was probably driven in part by Himalayan tectonic uplift in the Late Miocene (~9–8 Ma), which changed climatic patterns and resulted in the loss of preferred hominoid rainforest habitat. Similarly, climate change in Europe resulting in the loss of preferred habitat almost certainly played a role in European ape extinction.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Agusti, J., Sanz de Siria, A., & Garces, M. (2003). Explaining the end of the hominoid experiment in Europe. Journal of Human Evolution, 45, 145–153.
Alba, D. M. (2012). Fossil apes from the Vallès-Penedès basin. Evolutionary Anthropology, 21, 254–269.
Alba, D. M., Delson, E., Carnevale, G., Colombero, S., Delfino, M., Giuntelli, P., et al. (2014). First joint record of Mesopithecus and cf. Macaca in the Miocene of Europe. Journal of Human Evolution, 67, 1–18.
Alba, D. M., Almecija, S., DeMiguel, D., Fortuny, J., de los Rios, M.P., Pina, M., et al. (2015a). Miocene small-bodied ape from Eurasia sheds light on hominoid evolution. Science, 350. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab2625.
Alba, D. M., Montoya, P., Pina, M., Rook, L., Abella, J., Morales, J., et al. (2015b). First record of Mesopithecus (Cercopithecidae, Colobinae) from the Miocene of the Iberian Peninsula. Journal of Human Evolution, 88, 1–14.
Alpagut, B., Andrews, P., & Martin, L. (1990). New hominoid specimens from the Middle Miocene site at Pasalar, Turkey. Journal of Human Evolution, 19, 397–422.
Alpagut, B., Andrews, P., Fortelius, M., Kappelman, J., Temizsoy, I., Celebi, H., et al. (1996). A new specimen of Ankarapithecus meteai from the Sinap Formation of central Anatolia. Nature, 382, 349–351.
Andrews, P. (1978). A revision of the Miocene Hominoidea of East Africa. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), London, 30, 85–224.
Andrews, P. (1981). Species diversity and diet in monkeys and apes during the Miocene. In C. B. Stringer (Ed.), Aspects of human evolution (pp. 25–61). London: Taylor and Francis.
Andrews, P. (1996). Paleoecology and hominoid paleoenvironments. Biological Reviews, 71, 257–300.
Andrews, P., & Cronin, J. E. (1982). The relationships of Sivapithecus and Ramapithecus and the evolution of the orang-utan. Nature, 297, 541–546.
Andrews, P., & Groves, C. (1975). Gibbons and brachiation. Gibbon Siamang, 4, 167–218.
Andrews, P., Harrison, T., Delson, E., Bernor, R. L., & Martin, L. (1996). Distribution and biochronology of European and Southwest Asian Miocene catarrhines. In R. L. Bernor, V. Fahlbusch & H.-W. Mittman (Eds.), The evolution of Western Eurasian Neogene mammal faunas (pp. 168–207). New York: Columbia University Press.
Andrews, P., & Kelley, J. (2007). Middle Miocene dispersals of apes. Folia Primatologia, 78, 328–343.
Andrews, P., & Martin, L. (1987). Cladistic relationships of extant and fossil hominoids. Journal of Human Evolution, 16, 101–118.
Andrews, P., & Tekkaya, I. (1980). A revision of the Turkish Miocene hominoid Sivapithecus meteai. Palaeontology, 23, 85–95.
Andrews, P., & Tobien, H. (1977). New Miocene locality in Turkey with evidence on the origin of Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus. Nature, 268, 699–701.
Antoine, P.-O., Metais, G., Orliac, M. J., Crochet, J.-Y., Flynn, L. J., Marivaux, L., et al. (2013). Mammalian Neogene biostratigraphy of the Sulaiman province, Pakistan. In X. Wang, L. J. Flynn & M. Fortelius (Eds.), Fossil mammals of Asia: Neogene biostratigraphy and chronology (pp. 400–422). New York: University Press.
Antoine, P.-O., Welcomme, J.-L., Marivaux, L., Baloch, I., Benammi, M., & Tassy, P. (2003). First record of Paleogene Elephantoidea (Mammalia, Proboscidea) from the Bugti Hills of Pakistan. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 23, 977–980.
Badgley, C., Barry, J. C., Morgan, M. E., Nelson, S. V., Behrensmeyer, A. K., Cerling, T. E., et al. (2008). Ecological changes in Miocene mammalian record show impact of prolonged climatic forcing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 105, 12145–12149.
Badgley, C., Domingo, M. S., Barry, J. C., Morgan, M. E., Flynn, L. J., & Pilbeam, D. (2016). Continental gateways and the dynamics of mammalian faunas. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 15, 763–779.
Barry, J. C. (1987). The history and chronology of Siwalik cercopithecids. Human Evolution, 2, 47–58.
Barry, J. C., Behrensmeyer, A. K., Badgley, C. E., Flynn, L. J., Peltonen, H., Cheema, I. U., et al. (2013). The Neogene Siwaliks of the Potwar plateau, Pakistan. In X. Wang, L. J. Flynn & M. Fortelius (Eds.), Fossil mammals of Asia: Neogene biostratigraphy and chronology (pp. 373–399). New York: Columbia University Press.
Barry, J. C., Jacobs, L. L., & Kelley, J. (1986). An early middle Mocene catarrhine from Pakistan with comments on the dispersal of catarrhines into Eurasia. Journal of Human Evolution, 15, 501–508.
Barry, J. C., Johnson, N. M., Raza, S. M., & Jacobs, L. L. (1985). Neogene mammalian faunal change in southern Asia: Correlations with climatic, tectonic, and eustatic events. Geology, 13, 637–640.
Barry, J. C., Morgan, M. E., Flynn, L. J., Pilbeam, D., Jacobs, L. L., Lindsay, E. H., et al. (1995). Patterns of faunal turnover and diversity in Neogene Siwaliks of Northern Pakistan. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 115, 209–226.
Begun, D. R. (2000). Technical comments: Middle Miocene hominoid origins. Science, 287, 2375a.
Begun, D. R. (2002). The pliopithecoidea. In W. C. Hartwig (Ed.), The primate fossil record (pp. 221–240). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Begun, D. R. (2015). Fossil record of Miocene hominoids. In W. Henke & I. Tattersall (Eds.), Handbook of paleoanthropology (pp. 1261–1332). Berlin: Springer.
Begun, D. R., & Güleç, E. (1998). Restoration of the type and palate of Ankarapithecus meteai: Taxonomic and phylogenetic implications. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 105, 279–314.
Begun, D. R., Güleç, E., & Geraads, D. (2003). Dispersal patterns of Eurasian hominoids: Implications from Turkey. Deinsea, 10, 23–40.
Begun, D. R., Nargolwalla, M. C., & Kordos, L. (2012). European Miocene hominids and the origin of the African ape and human clade. Evolutionary Anthropology, 21, 10–23.
Begun, D. R., Ward, C. V., & Rose, M. D. (1997). Events in hominoid evolution. In D. R. Begun, C. V. Ward & M. D. Rose (Eds.), Function, phylogeny and fossils: Miocene hominoid origins and adaptations (pp. 389–415). New York: Plenum Press.
Benefit, B. R. (1993). The permanent dentition and phylogenetic position of Victoriapithecus from Maboko Island, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 25, 83–172.
Benefit, B. R. (1999). Victoriapithecus: The key to Old World monkey and catarrhine origins. Evolutionary Anthropology, 8, 155–174.
Benefit, B. R., & McCrossin, M. L. (1997). Earliest known Old World monkey skull. Nature, 388, 368–371.
Benefit, B. R., & McCrossin, M. L. (2002). The Victoriapithecidae, Cercopithecoidea. In W. C. Hartwig (Ed.), The primate fossil record (pp. 241–253). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Benefit, B. R., & McCrossin, M. L. (2015). A window into ape evolution. Science, 350, 515–516.
Bernor, R., Brunet, M., Ginsberg, L., Mein, P., Pickford, M., Rögl, F., et al. (1987). A consideration of some major topics concerning Old World Miocene Mammalian chronology, migrations and paleogeography. Geobios, 20, 431–439.
Bernor, R., Flynn, L. J., Harrison, T., Hussain, S. T., & Kelley, J. (1988). Dionysopithecus from southern Pakistan and the biochronology and biogeography of early Eurasian catarrhines. Journal of Human Evolution, 17, 339–358.
Bernor, R. L., & Tobien, H. (1990). The mammalian geochronology and biogeography of Paşalar (Middle Miocene, Turkey). Journal of Human Evolution, 19, 551–568.
Bishop, W. W., Miller, J. A., & Fitch, F. J. (1969). New potassium-argon age determinations relevant to the Miocene fossil mammal sequence in East Africa. American Journal of Science, 267, 669–699.
Bocherans, H., Schrenk, F., Chaimanee, Y., Kullmer, O., Morike, D., Pushkina, D., et al. (2017). Flexibility of diet and habitat in Pleistocene of South Asian mammals: Implications for the fate of the giant fossil ape Gigantopithecus. Quaternary International, 434A, 148–155.
Böhme, M. (2003). The Miocene climatic optimum: Evidence from ectothermic vertebrates of Central Europe. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 195, 389–401.
Böhme, M., Aziz, H. A., Prieto, J., Bachtadse, V., & Schweigert, G. (2011). Bio-magnetostratigraphy and environment of the oldest Eurasian hominoid from the Early Miocene of Engelweis (Germany). Journal of Human Evolution, 61, 332–339.
Böhme, M., Spassov, N., Ebner, M., Geraads, D., Hristova, L., Kirscher, U., et al. (2017). Messinian age and savannah environment of the possible hominin Graecopithecus from Europe. PLoS ONE, 12, e0177347. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177347.
de Bonis, L., Bouvrain, G., Geraads, D., & Koufos, G. (1990). New hominid skull material from the late Miocene of Macedonia in Northern Greece. Nature, 345, 712.
Brown, B., & Ward, S. (1988). Basicranial and facial topography in Pongo and Sivapithecus. In J. H. Schwartz (Ed.), Ourang-utan biology (pp. 247–260). New York: Oxford University Press.
Casanovas-Vilar, I., Alba, D. M., Garcés, M., Robles, J. M., & Moyà-Solà, S. (2011). Updated chronology for the Miocene hominoid radiation in Western Eurasia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 108, 5554–5559.
Chaimanee, Y., Jolly, D., Benammi, M., Tafforeau, P., Duzer, D., Moussa, I., et al. (2003). A Middle Miocene hominoid from Thailand and orangutan origins. Nature, 422, 61.
Chaimanee, Y., Suteethorn, V., Jintasakul, P., Vidthayanon, C., Marandat, B., & Jaeger, J.-J. (2004). A new orang-utan relative from the Late Miocene of Thailand. Nature, 427, 439–441.
Chaimanee, Y., Yamee, C., Tian, P., Khaowiset, K., Marandat, B., Tafforeau, P., et al. (2006). Khoratpithecus piriyai, a late Miocene hominoid of Thailand. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 131, 311–323.
Chang, L., Guo, Z., Deng, C., Wu, H., Ji, X., Zhao, Y., et al. (2015). Pollen evidence of the paleoenvironments of Lufengpithecus lufengensis in the Zhaotong Basin, southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 435, 95–104.
Chatterjee, H. J., Ho, S. Y. W., Barnes, I., & Groves, C. (2009). Estimating the phylogeny and divergence times of primates using a supermatrix approach. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 9, 259.
Coster, P., Benammi, M., Chaimanee, Y., Yamee, C., Chavasseau, O., Emonet, E.-G., et al. (2010). A complete magnetic-polarity stratigraphy of the Miocene continental deposits of Mae Moh Basin, northern Thailand, and a reassessment of the age of hominoid-bearing localities in northern Thailand. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 122, 1180–1191.
Dean, D., & Delson, E. (1992). Second gorilla or third chimp? Nature, 359, 676.
Delson, E. (1975). Evolutionary history of the Cercopithecidae. In F. Szalay (Ed.), Approaches to Primate Paleobiology, Contributions to Primatology, vol. 5 (pp. 167–217). Basel: Karger.
Delson, E. (1980). Fossil macaques, phyletic relationships and a scenario of deployment. In D. G. Lindburg (Ed.), The macaques: Studies in ecology, behavior and evolution (pp. 10–30). New York: Van Nostrand.
Delson, E. (1994). Evolutionary history of the colobine monkeys in paleoenvironmental perspective. In A. G. Davies & J. H. Oates (Eds.), Colobine monkeys: Their ecology, behaviour, and evolution (pp. 11–43). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Delson, E. (1996). The oldest monkeys in Asia. In O. Takenaka (Ed.), Abstracts, international symposium: Evolution of Asian Primates (p. 40). Inuyama: Primate Research Institute.
Delson, E., Terranova, C. J., Jungers, W. L., Sargis, E. J., Jablonski, N. G., & Dechow, P. C. (2000). Body mass in Cercopithecidae (Primates, Mammalia): Estimation and scaling in extinct and extant taxa. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 8, 1–159.
De Miguel, D., & Rook, L. (2018). Understanding climate’s influence on the extinction of Oreopithecus (late Miocene, Tusco-Sardinian paleobioprovince, Italy). Journal of Human Evolution, 116, 14–26.
Downing, K. F., Lindsay, E. H., Downs, W. R., & Speyer, S. E. (1993). Lithostratigraphy and vertebrate biostratigraphy of the early Miocene Himalayan foreland, Zinda Pir Dome, Pakistan. Sedimentary Geology, 87, 25–37.
Falconer, H., & Cautley, P. T. (1837). On additional fossil species of the order Quadrumana from the Sewalik Hills. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 6, 354–360.
Fleagle, J. G. (1988). Primate adaptation and evolution (1st ed.). New York: Academic Press.
Fleagle, J. G. (2013). Primate adaptation and evolution (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press.
Fleagle, J. G., & Gilbert, C. C. (2006). Biogeography and the primate fossil record: The role of tectonics, climate, and chance. In S. Lehman & J. G. Fleagle (Eds.), Primate biogeography (pp. 375–418). New York: Springer.
Fleagle, J. G., & Simons, E. L. (1978). Micropithecus clarki, a small Ape from the Miocene of Uganda. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 49, 427–440.
Fleagle, J. G., & Simons, E. L. (1982). The humerus of Aegyptopithecus zeuxis: A primitive anthropoid. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 59, 175–193.
Flynn, L. J., Lindsay, E. H., Pilbeam, D., Raza, S. M., Morgan, M. E., Barry, J. C., et al. (2013). The Siwaliks and Neogene evolutionary biology in South Asia. In X. Wang, L. J. Flynn, & M. Fortelius (Eds.), Fossil mammals of Asia: Neogene biostratigraphy and chronology (pp. 353–372). New York: Columbia University Press.
Flynn, L. J., & Wessels, W. (2013). Paleobiogeography and South Asian small mammals: Neogene latitudinal faunal variation. In X. Wang, L. J. Flynn, & M. Fortelius (Eds.), Fossil mammals of Asia: Neogene biostratigraphy and chronology (pp. 445–460). New York: Columbia University Press.
Flynn, L. J., Pilbeam, D., Barry, J. C., Morgan, M. E., & Raza, S. M. (2016). Siwalik synopsis: A long stratigraphic sequence for the later Cenozoic of South Asia. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 15, 877–887.
Flynn, L. J., Kimura, Y., & Jacobs, L. J. (2020). The Murine Cradle. In G. V. R. Prasad & R. Patnaik (Eds.), Biological consequences of plate tectonics: New perspectives on post-Gondwana break-up (pp. 347–362). Cham: Springer.
Friedman, R., Gee, J., Tauxe, L., Downing, K., & Lindsay, E. (1992). The magnetostratigraphy of the Chitarwata and lower Vihowa formations of the Dera Ghazi Khan area, Pakistan. Sedimentary Geology, 8, 253–268.
Gebo, D. L. (1993). Postcranial anatomy and locomotor adaptation in early African anthropoids. In D. L. Gebo (Ed.), Postcranial adaptation in nonhuman primates (pp. 220–234). DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press.
Gebo, D. L., MacLatchy, L., Kityo, R., Deino, A., Kingston, J., & Pilbeam, D. (1997). A hominoid genus from the early Miocene of Uganda. Science, 276, 401–404.
Gervais, P. (1872). Sur un singe fossile, d’espece non encore decrite, qui a ete decouvert au Monte Bamboli. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, 74, 1217–1223.
Gilbert, C. C., Pugh, K. D., Patel, B. A., Campisano, C. J., Singh, N. P., Fleagle, J. G., et al. (2017). New small bodied hominoid from Lower Siwalik deposits surrounding Ramnagar (Jammu and Kashmir), India (abstract). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, Suppl. 37, 118.
Gilbert, C. C., Ortiz, A., Patel, B. A., Singh, N. P., Campisano, C. J., Fleagle, J. G., Pugh, K. D., and Patnaik, R. (2020). New Middle Miocene ape (Primates: Hylobatidae) from Ramnagar, India fills major gaps in the hominoid fossil record. Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
Ginsburg, L. (1975). Les Pliopitheques des faluns helvetiens de la Touraine et de l’Anjou. Colloq. Int. CNRS Paris, 218, 877–886.
Ginsburg, L., & Mein, P. (1980). Crouzelia rhodanica, nouvelle espèce de Primate catarhinien, et essai sur la position systématique des Pliopithecidae.
Gu, Y., & Lin, Y. (1983). First discovery of Dryopithecus in East China. Acta Anthropologica Sinica, 2, 305–314.
Güleç, E. S., Sevim, A., Pehlevan, C., & Kaya, F. (2007). A new great ape from the late Miocene of Turkey. Anthropological Science, 115, 153–158.
Harrison, T. (1988). A taxonomic revision of the small catarrhine primates from the early Miocene of East Africa. Folia Primatologia, 50, 59–108.
Harrison, T. (1992). A reassessment of the taxonomic and phylogenetic affinities of the fossil catarrhines from Fort Ternan, Kenya. Primates, 33, 501–522.
Harrison, T. (2002). Late Oligocene to middle Miocene catarrhines from Afro-Arabia. In W. C. Hartwig (Ed.), The primate fossil record (pp. 311–338). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Harrison, T. (2005). The zoogeographic and phylogenetic relationships of early catarrhine primates in Asia. Anthropological Science, 113, 43–51.
Harrison, T. (2010). Dendropithecoidea, Proconsuloidea, and Hominoidea (Catarrhini, Primates). In L. Werdelin & W. J. Sanders (Eds.), Cenozoic mammals of Africa (pp. 429–469). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Harrison, T. (2013). Catarrhine origins. In D. R. Begun (Ed.), A companion to paleoanthropology (pp. 376–396). West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.
Harrison, T. (2016). The fossil record and evolutionary history of hylobatids. In U. H. Reichard, H. Hirohisa & C. Barelli (Eds.), Evolution of gibbons and siamang: Phylogeny, morphology and cognition (pp. 91–110). New York: Springer.
Harrison, T., & Andrews, P. (2009). The anatomy and systematic position of the early Miocene proconsulid from Meswa Bridge, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 56, 479–496.
Harrison, T., & Gu, Y. (1999). Taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of early Miocene catarrhines from Sihong, China. Journal of Human Evolution, 37, 225–277.
Harrison, T., Ji, X., & Zheng, L. (2008). Renewed investigations at the Late Miocene hominoid locality of Leilao, Yunnan, China. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 135(S46), 113.
Harrison, T., Jin, C., Zhang, Y., Wang, Y., & Zhu, M. (2014). Fossil Pongo from the Early Pleistocene Gigantopithecus fauna of Chongzuo, Guangxi, southern China. Quaternary International, 354, 59–67.
Harrison, T., & Rook, L. (1997). Enigmatic anthropoid or misunderstood ape? The phylogenetic status of Oreopithecus bambolii reconsidered. In D. R. Begun, C. V. Ward & M. D. Rose (Eds.), Function, phylogeny and fossils: Miocene hominoid evolution and adaptations (pp. 327–362). New York: Plenum Press.
Harrison, T., Xueping, J., & Su, D. (2002). On the systematic status of the late Neogene hominoids from Yunnan Province, China. Journal of Human Evolution, 43, 207–227.
Harzhauser, M., Kroh, A., Mandic, O., Piller, W. E., Göhlich, U., Reuter, M., et al. (2007). Biogeographic responses to geodynamics: A key study all around the Oligo-Miocene Tethyan seaway. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 246, 241–256.
Heizmann, E., & Begun, D. R. (2001). The oldest European hominoid. Journal of Human Evolution, 41, 465–481.
Hennig, W. (1966). Phylogenetic Systematics. D. Dwight Davis and Rainer Zangerl, tr. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Hürzeler, J. (1954). Contribution à l’odontologie et à la phylogenèse du genre Pliopithecus Gervais. Annales de Paléontologie, 40, 5–63.
Ishida, H., Kunimatsu, Y., Takano, T., Nakano, Y., & Nakatsukasa, M. (2004). Nacholapithecus skeleton from the Middle Miocene of Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 46, 69–103.
Jablonski, N. G., Whitfort, M. J., Roberts-Smith, N., & Qinqi, X. (2000). The influence of life history and diet on the distribution of catarrhine primates during the Pleistocene in eastern Asia. Journal of Human Evolution, 39, 131–157.
Jaeger, J.-J., Soe, A. N., Chavasseau, O., Coster, P., Emonet, E.-G., Guy, F., et al. (2011). First hominoid from the Late Miocene of the Irrawaddy Formation (Myanmar). PLoS ONE, 6, e17065. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0017065.
Ji, X., Jablonski, N. G., Su, D. F., Deng, C., Flynn, L. J., You, Y., et al. (2013). Juvenile hominoid cranium from the terminal Miocene of Yunnan, China. Chinese Science Bulletin, 58, 3771–3779.
Kaya, F., Kaymakçi, N., Bibi, F., Eronen, J. T., Pehlevan, C., Erkman, A. C., et al. (2016). Magnetostratigraphy and paleoecology of the hominid-bearing locality Corakyerler, Tuglu Formation (Cankiri Basin, Central Anatolia). Journal Vertebrate Paleontology, 36. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2015.1071710.
Kelley, J. (2002). The hominoid radiation in Asia. In W. C. Hartwig (Ed.), The primate fossil record (pp. 369–384). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kelley, J., Ward, S., Brown, B., Hill, A., & Duren, D. L. (2002). Dental remains of Equatorius africanus from Kipsaramon, Tugen Hills, Baringo district, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 42, 39–62.
Kelley, J., Andrews, P., & Alpagut, B. (2008). A new hominoid species from the middle Miocene site of Pasalar, Turkey. Journal of Human Evolution, 54, 455–479.
Kelley, J., & Gao, F. (2012). Juvenile hominoid cranium from the late Miocene of southern China and hominoid diversity in Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 109, 6882–6885.
Köhler, M., Moyà-Solà, S., & Alba, D. M. (2000). Macaca (Primates, Cercopithecidae) from the late Miocene of Spain. Journal of Human Evolution, 38, 447–452.
Koufos, G. D. (2013). Neogene mammal biostratigraphy and chronology of Greece. In X. Wang, M. Fortelius, & L. J. Flynn (Eds.), Neogene terrestrial mammalian biostratigraphy and chronology in Asia (pp. 595–621). New York: Columbia University Press.
Koufos, G. D., de Bonis, L., & Kugiumtzis, D. (2016). New material of the hominoid Ouranopithecus macedoniensis from the Late Miocene of the Axios Valley (Macedonia, Greece) with some remarks on its sexual dimorphism. Folia Primatologia, 87, 94–122.
Koufos, G. D., Zouros, N., & Mourouzidou, O. (2003). Prodeinotherium bavaricum (Proboscidea, Mammalia) from Lesvos island, Greece; the appearance of deinotheres in the Eastern Mediterranean. Geobios, 36, 305–315.
Kunimatsu, Y., Nakatsukasa, M., Sawada, Y., Sakai, T., Hyodo, M., Hyodo, H., et al. (2007). A new Late Miocene great ape from Kenya and its implications for the origins of African great apes and humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 104, 19220–19225.
Larson, S. G. (1998). Parallel evolution in the hominoid trunk and forelimb. Evolutionary Anthropology, 6, 87–99.
Lartet, E. (1856). Note sur un grand singe fossile qui se rattache au groupe des singes superieurs. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, 43, 219–223.
Leakey, M. G., Ungar, P. S., & Walker, A. (1995). A new genus of large primate from the Late Oligocene of Lothidok, Turkana district, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 28, 519–531.
Leakey, R. E., & Leakey, M. G. (1986a). A new Miocene hominoid from Kenya. Nature, 324, 143–146.
Leakey, R. E., & Leakey, M. G. (1986b). A second new Miocene hominoid from Kenya. Nature, 324, 146–148.
Leakey, R. E., Leakey, M. G., & Walker, A. (1988). Morphology of Turkanapithecus kalakolensis from Kenya. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 76, 277–288.
Le Gros Clark, W. E., & Leakey, L. S. B. (1951). The Miocene Hominoidea of East Africa. Fossil mammals of Africa. British Museum (Natural History), London, 1, 1–117.
Li, C. (1978). A Miocene gibbon-like primate from Shihhung, Kiangsu Province. Vertebrata PalAsiatica, 16, 187–192.
Lovejoy, C. O. (1981). The origin of man. Science, 211, 341–350.
Lydekker, R. (1879). Further notices of Siwalik Mammalia. Records of the Geological Survey of India, 12, 33–52.
Maddison, W. S., & Maddison, D. R. (2018). Mequite: A modular system for evolutionary analysis. Version 3.5. http://mesquiteproject.org.
Martin, L. B., & Andrews, P. (1993). Species recognition in Middle Miocene hominoids. In W. H. Kimbel & L. B. Martin (Eds.), Species, species concepts, and primate evolution (pp. 393–427). New York: Plenum Press.
Matthew, W. D., & Granger, W. (1923). New fossil mammals from the Pliocene of Szechuan, China. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 48, 568–598.
Maxwell, S. J., Hopley, P. J., Upchurch, P., & Soligo, C. (2018). Sporadic sampling, not climatic forcing, drives observed early hominin diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 115, 4891–4896.
McDougall, I., & Brown, F. H. (2009). Timing of volcanism and evolution of the northern Kenya Rift. Geological Magazine, 146, 34–47.
Madden, C. T. (1980). New Proconsul (Xenopithecus) from the Miocene of Kenya. Primates, 21, 241–252.
McCollum, M. S., Peppe, D. J., McNulty, K. P., Dunsworth, H. M., Harcourt-Smith, W. E. H., & Andrews, A. L. (2013). Magnetostratigraphy of the early Miocene Hiwegi Formation (Rusinga Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya). Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 44, 241.
McNulty, K. P., Begun, D. R., Kelley, J., Manthi, F. K., & Mbua, E. N. (2015). A systematic revision of Proconsul with the description of a new genus of early Miocene hominoid. Journal of Human Evolution, 84, 42–61.
Miller, E. R., Benefit, B. R., McCrossin, M. L., Plavcan, J. M., Leakey, M. G., & El-Barkooky, A. N. (2009). Systematics of early and middle Miocene Old World monkeys. Journal of Human Evolution, 57, 195–211.
Nakatsukasa, M., & Kunimatsu, Y. (2009). Nacholapithecus and its importance for understanding hominoid evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology, 18, 103–119.
Napier, J. R., & Davis, P. R. (1959). The forelimb skeleton and associated remains of Proconsul africanus. Fossil Mammals of Africa, 16, 1–69.
Nargolwalla, M. C. (2009). Eurasian middle and late Miocene hominoid paleobiogeography and the geographic origins of the Homininae. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Toronto.
Nelson, G., & Platnick, N. (1981). Systematics and biogeography: Cladistics and vicariance. New York: Columbia University Press.
Nengo, I., Tafforeau, P., Gilbert, C. C., Fleagle, J. G., Miller, E., Feibel, C., et al. (2017). New infant cranium from the African Miocene sheds light on ape evolution. Nature, 548, 169–174.
Olejniczak, A. J., Smith, T. M., Wang, W., Potts, R., Ciochon, R., Kullmer, O., et al. (2008). Molar enamel thickness and dentine horn height in Gigantopithecus blacki. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 135, 85–91.
Ortiz, A., Pilbrow, V., Villamil, C. I., Korsgaard, J. G., Bailey, S. E., & Harrison, T. (2015). The taxonomic and phylogenetic affinities of Bunopithecus sericus, a fossil hylobatid from the Pleistocene of China. PLoS ONE, 10, e0131206. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131206.
Pan, Y. (2006). Primates Linnaeus, 1758. In G. Qi & W. Dong (Eds.), Lufengpithecus hudienensis site (pp. 131–148). Beijing: Science Press.
Patnaik, R. (2008). Revisiting Haritalyangar, the Late Miocene Ape locality of India. In J. G. Fleagle & C. C. Gilbert (Eds.), Elwyn Simons: A search for origins (pp. 197–210). New York: Springer.
Patnaik, R. (2016). Neogene-Quaternary mammalian paleobiogeography of the Indian Subcontinent: An appraisal. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 15, 889–902.
Patnaik, R. (2020). New data on the Siwalik murines, rhizomyines and ctenodactylines (Rodentia) from the Indian subcontinent. In G. V. R. Prasad & R. Patnaik (Eds.), Biological consequences of plate tectonics: New perspectives on post-Gondwana break-up (pp. 363–391). Cham: Springer.
Patnaik, R., & Cameron, D. (2007). On new dates and ecology of recent hominoid finds from Haritalyangar area, Himachal Pradesh. In A. R. Sankhyan & V. R. Rao (Eds.), Human origins, genome and people of India: Genomic, paleontological, and archaeological perspectives (pp. 112–119). New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
Peppe, D. J., McNulty, K. P., Cote, S. M., Harcourt-Smith, W. E., Dunsworth, H. M., & Van Couvering, J. A. (2009). Stratigraphic interpretation of the Kulu Formation (Early Miocene, Rusinga Island, Kenya) and its implications for primate evolution. Journal of Human Evolution, 56, 447–461.
Perelman, P., Johnson, W. E., Roos, C., Seuanez, H. N., Horvath, J. E., Moreira, M. A. M., et al. (2011). A molecular phylogeny of living primates. PLoS Genetics, 7, e1001342. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1001342.
Pickford, M. (1985). A new look at Kenyapithecus based on recent discoveries in Western Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 14, 113–143.
Pickford, M. (1986). Hominoids from the Miocene of East Africa and the phyletic position of Kenyapithecus. Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie, 76, 117–130.
Pickford, M., Sawada, Y., Tayama, R., Matsuda, Y. K., Itaya, T., Hyodo, H., et al. (2006). Refinement of the age of the Middle Miocene Fort Ternan Beds, Western Kenya, and its implications for Old World biochronology. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 338(8), 545–555.
Pillans, B., Williams, M., Cameron, D., Patnaik, R., Hogarth, J., Sahni, A., et al. (2005). Revised correlation of the Haritalyangar magnetostratigraphy, Indian Siwaliks: Implications for the age of the Miocene hominids Indopithecus and Sivapithecus, with a note on a new hominid tooth. Journal of Human Evolution, 48, 507–515.
Pozzi, L., Hodgson, J. A., Burrell, A. S., Sterner, K. N., Raaum, R. L., & Disotell, T. R. (2014). Primate phylogenetic relationships and divergence dates inferred from complete mitochondrial genomes. Molecular Phylogenetics Evolution, 75, 165–183.
Pugh, K. D. (2020). The phylogenetic relationships of Middle-Late Miocene apes: Implications for early human evolution. Ph.D. Dissertation, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York.
Qi, G., Dong, W., Zheng, L., Zhao, L., Gao, F., Yue, L., et al. (2006). Taxonomy, age and environment status of the Yuanmou hominoids. Chinese Science Bulletin, 51, 704–712.
Rae, T. C. (1997). The early evolution of the hominoid face. In D. R. Begun, C. V. Ward & M. D. Rose (Eds.), Function, phylogeny, and fossils: Miocene hominoid evolution and adaptations (pp. 59–77). New York: Plenum Press.
Rae, T. C. (1999). Mosaic evolution in the origin of the Hominoidea. Folia Primatologia, 70, 125–135.
Rae, T. C. (2004). Miocene hominoid craniofacial morphology and the emergence of great apes. Annals of Anatomy, 186, 417–421.
Rasmussen, D. T., & Guitierrez, M. (2009). A mammalian fauna from the Late Oligocene of Northwestern Kenya. Palaeontographica Abt. A, 288, 1–52.
Rögl, F. (1998). Paleogeographic considerations for Mediterranean and Paratethys seaways (Oligocene to Miocene). Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien, 99, 279–310.
Rögl, F. (1999). Mediterranean and Paratethys. Facts and hypotheses of an Oligocene to Miocene paleogeography (short overview). Geologica Carpathica, 50, 339–349.
Rook, L., Harrison, T., & Engesser, B. (1996). The taxonomic status and biochronological implications of new finds of Oreopithecus from Baccinello (Tuscany, Italy). Journal of Human Evolution, 30, 3–27.
Rose, M. D. (1983). Miocene hominoid postcranial morphology: Monkey-like, ape-like, neither, or both? In R. L. Ciochon & R. S. Corruccini (Eds.), New interpretations of ape and human ancestry (pp. 405–417). New York: Plenum Press.
Rose, M. D. (1988). Another look at the anthropoid elbow. Journal of Human Evolution, 171, 193–224.
Rose, M. D. (1993). Locomotor anatomy of Miocene hominoids. In D. L. Gebo (Ed.), Postcranial adaptation in nonhuman primates (pp. 252–272). DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press.
Rose, M. D. (1997). Functional and phylogenetic features of the forelimb in Miocene hominoids. In D. R. Begun, C. V. Ward & M. D. Rose (Eds.), Function, phylogeny, and fossils: Miocene hominoid evolution and adaptations (pp. 79–100). New York: Plenum Press.
Rossie, J. B., & MacLatchy, L. (2006). A new pliopithecid genus from the early Miocene of Uganda. Journal of Human Evolution, 50, 568–586.
Rossie, J. B., & Hill, A. (2018). A new species of Simiolus from the middle Miocene of the Tugen Hills, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 125, 50–58.
Russo, G. A. (2016). Comparative sacral morphology and the reconstructed tail lengths of five extinct primates: Proconsul heseloni, Epipliopithecus vindobonensis, Archaeolmur adwardsi, Megaladapis grandidieri, and Paleopropithecus kelyus. Journal of Human Evolution, 90, 135–162.
Sankhyan, A. R., Kelley, J., & Harrison, T. (2017). A highly derived pliopithecid from the Late Miocene of Haritalyangar, India. Journal of Human Evolution, 105, 1–12.
Shea, B. T. (1985). On aspects of skull form in African apes and orangutans, with implications for hominoid evolution. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 68, 329–342.
Shultz, A. (1933a). Observations on the growth, classification and evolutionary specialization of gibbons and siamangs. Human Biology, 5, 212–255.
Shultz, A. (1933b). Observations on the growth, classification and evolutionary specialization of gibbons and siamang (concluded). Human Biology, 5, 385–428.
Schwartz, J. H. (1990). Lufengpithecus and its potential relationship to an orang-utan clade. Journal of Human Evolution, 19, 591–605.
Seiffert, E. R. (2012). Early primate evolution in Afro-Arabia. Evolutionary Anthropology, 21, 239–253.
Seiffert, E. R., & Simons, E. L. (2001). Astragalar morphology of late Eocene anthropoids from the Fayum Depression (Egypt) and the origin of catarrhine primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 41, 577–606.
Seiffert, E. R., Simons, E. L., & Fleagle, J. G. (2000). Anthropoid humeri from the late Eocene of Egypt. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 97, 10062–10067.
Seiffert, E. R., Simons, E. L., Fleagle, J. G., & Godinot, M. (2010). Paleogene anthropoids. In L. Werdelin & W. J. Sanders (Eds.), Cenozoic mammals of Africa (pp. 369–391). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Senut, B., Pickford, M., Gommery, D., & Kunimatsu, Y. (2000). A new genus of Early Miocene hominoid from East Africa: Ugandapithecus major (Le Gros Clark & Leakey, 1950). Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, II A, 3, 227–233.
Sepulchre, P. (2003). Paleoenvironments d’Asie du Sud-Est: apports de l’analyse palynologique de deux sites Miocene de Thailande. Montpellier: Diplome d’Etudes Approfondies, Universite Montpellier II.
Simons, E. L. (1987). New faces of Aegyptopithecus from the Oligocene of Egypt. Journal of Human Evolution, 16, 273–289.
Simons, E. L. (1989). Description of two genera and species of late Eocene Anthropoidea from Egypt. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 86, 9956–9960.
Simons, E. L., & Rasmussen, D. T. (1996). Skull of Catopithecus browni, an early Tertiary catarrhine. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 100, 261–292.
Simons, E. L., Plavcan, J. M., & Fleagle, J. G. (1999). Canine sexual dimorphism in Egyptian Eocene anthropoid primates: Catopithecus and Proteopithecus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 96, 2559–2562.
Simons, E. L., Seiffert, E. R., Ryan, T. M., & Attia, Y. (2007). A remarkable female cranium of the Oligocene anthropoid Aegyptopithecus zeuxis (Catarrhini, Propliopithecidae). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 104, 8731–8736.
Singh, N. P., Gilbert, C. C., Patel, B. A., & Patnaik, R. (2018). The taphonomy and paleoecology of the middle Miocene hominoid locality of Ramnagar (Jammu and Kashmir, India). Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.02.020.
Spassov, N., Geraads, D., Hristova, L., Markov, G. N., Merceron, G., Tzankov, T., et al. (2012). A hominid tooth from Bulgaria: The last pre-human hominid of continental Europe. Journal of Human Evolution, 62, 138–145.
Steininger, F. F., Rabeder G., & Rögl F. (1985). Land mammal distribution in the Mediterranean Neogene: A consequence of geokinematic and climatic events. In Geological evolution of the Mediterranean Basin (pp. 559–571). New York: Springer.
Steiper, M. E., & Young, N. M. (2006). Primate molecular divergence dates. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 41, 384–394.
Stevens, N. J., Seiffert, E. R., O’Connor, P. M., Roberts, E. M., Schmitz, M. D., Krause, C., et al. (2013). Paleontological evidence for an Oligocene divergence between Old World monkeys and apes. Nature, 497, 611–614.
Strait, D. S., Wood, B. A. 1999. Early hominid biogeography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 96, 9196–9200.
Suwa, G., Kono, R. T., Katoh, S., Asfaw, B., & Beyene, Y. (2007). A new species of great ape from the late Miocene Epoch in Ethiopia. Nature, 448, 921.
Suwa, G., Kunimatsu, Y., Ataabadi, M. M., Orak, Z., Sasaki, T., & Fortelius, M. (2016). The first hominoid from the Maragheh Formation, Iran. Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments, 96, 373–381.
Takai, M., Zhang, Y., Kono, R. T., & Jin, C. (2014). Changes in the composition of the Pleistocene primate fauna in southern China. Quaternary International, 354, 75–85.
Tekkaya, I. (1974). A new species of Tortonian anthropoids (Primates, Mammalia) from Anatolia. Bulletin of the Mineral Research and Exploration, Turkey, 83, 1–11.
Thomas, H. (1985). The Early and Middle Miocene land connection of the Afro-Arabian plateau and Asia: A major event for hominoid dispersal? In E. Delson (Ed.), Ancestors: The hard evidence (pp. 42–50). New York: Allan R. Liss.
Turvey, S. T., Bruun, K., Ortiz, A., Hansford, J., Hu, S., Ding, Y., et al. (2018). New genus of extinct Holocene gibbon associated with humans in Imperial China. Science, 360, 1346–1349.
Ungar, P. S., & Kay, R. F. (1995). The dietary adaptations of European Miocene catarrhines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 92, 5479–5481.
van der Made, J. (1999). Intercontinental relationship Europe-Africa and the Indian subcontinent. In G. E. Rossner & K. Heissig (Eds.), The Miocene land mammals of Europe (pp. 457–472). Munchen: Friedrich Pfeil.
Walker, A. (1997). Proconsul: Function and phylogeny. In D. R. Begun, C. V. Ward, & M. D. Rose (Eds.), Function, phylogeny, and fossils: Miocene hominoid evolution and adaptations (pp. 209–224). New York: Plenum Press.
Ward, C. V. (1998). Afropithecus, Proconsul, and the primitive hominoid skeleton. In E. Strasser, J. G. Fleagle, A. Rosenberger, & H. McHenry (Eds.), Primate locomotion: Recent advances (pp. 337–352). New York: Plenum Press.
Ward, C. V., Walker, A. C., & Teaford, M. F. (1991). Proconsul did not have a tail. Journal of Human Evolution, 21, 215–220.
Ward, S. C., & Duren, D. L. (2002). Middle and late Miocene African hominoids. In W. C. Hartwig (Ed.), The primate fossil record (pp. 385–397). Cambidge: Cambridge University Press.
Ward, S. C., & Kimbel, W. H. (1983). Subnasal alveolar morphology and the systemic position of Sivapithecus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 61, 157–171.
Ward, S. C., & Pilbeam, D. R. (1983). Maxillofacial morphology of Miocene hominoids from Africa and Indo-Pakistan. In R. L. Corruccini & R. S. Ciochon (Eds.), New interpretations of ape and human ancestry (pp. 211–238). New York: Plenum Press.
Ward, S., Brown, B., Hill, A., Kelley, J., & Downs, W. (1999). Equatorius: A new hominoid genus from the middle Miocene of Kenya. Science, 285, 1382–1386.
Welcomme, J.-L., Benammi, M., Crochet, J.-Y., Marivaux, L., Metais, G., Antoine, P.-O., et al. (2001). Himalayan forelands: Paleontological evidence for Oligocene detrital deposits in the Bugti Hills (Balochistan, Pakistan). Geological Magazine, 138, 397–405.
Xue, X.-X., & Delson, E. (1989). A new species of Dryopithecus from Gansu, China. Kexue tongbao (English edition), 34, 223–229.
Zalmout, I. S., Sanders, W. J., MacLatchy, L. M., Gunnell, G. F., Al-Mufarreh, Y. A., Ali, M. A., et al. (2010). New Oligocene primate from Saudi Arabia and the divergence of apes and Old World monkeys. Nature, 466, 360–364.
Zapfe, H. (1958). The skeleton of Pliopithecus (Epipliopithecus) vindobonensis Zapfe & Hürzeler. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 16, 441–455.
Zapfe, H. (1960). Die primatenfunde aus der miozänen Spaltenfüllung von Neudorf an der March (Dévinská Nová Ves), Tsechoslovakei. Mit anhang: Der Primatenfund aus dem Miozän von Klein Hadersdorf in Niederosterreich. Abbandlungen der Schweizerische Paläontologischen Gesellschaft, 78, 1–293.
Zhang, Y., Jin, C., Cai, Y., Kono, R., Wang, W., Wang, Y., et al. (2014). New 400–320 ka Gigantopithecus blacki remains from hejiang cave, chongzuo City, guangxi, South China. Quaternary International, 354, 35–45.
Zhang, Y., Kono, R. T., Wang, W., Harrison, T., Takai, M., Ciochon, R. L., et al. (2015). Evolutionary trend in dental size in Gigantopithecus blacki revisited. Journal of Human Evolution, 83, 91–100.
Zhisheng, A., Kutzbach, J. E., Prell, W. L., & Porter, S. C. (2001). Evolution of Asian monsoons and phased uplift of the Himalaya-Tibetan plateau since Late Miocene times. Nature, 411, 62.
Acknowledgments
We thank Rajeev Patnaik for inviting us to contribute to this volume and Prof. Sahni for his many contributions to geology and paleontology. Three anonymous reviewers provided helpful comments that greatly improved an earlier version of this manuscript. Luci Betti-Nash provided the maps for Figs. 17.2–17.4.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Appendix
Appendix
Character state matrices used to infer biogeographic dispersals in Figs. 17.2, 17.3 and 17.4.
Begun et al. (2012) matrix | |
Taxon | Character state(s) |
Outgroup | 0 |
Proconsul | 0 |
Griphopithecus | 1, 3 |
Hylobates | 2 |
Oreopithecus | 3 |
Kenyapithecus | 0, 1 |
Pongo | 2 |
Sivapithecus | 2 |
Ouranopithecus | 1, 3 |
Dryopithecus | 3 |
Hispanopithecus | 3 |
Rudapithecus | 3 |
Gorilla | 0 |
Pan | 0 |
Australopithecus | 0 |
Alba (2012) matrix | |
Taxon | Character state(s) |
Cercopithecoidea | 0, 1, 2, 3 |
Stem Hominoidea | 0 |
Proconsulidae | 0 |
Afropithecidae | 0 |
Hylobatidae | 2 |
Kenyapithecidae | 0, 1, 3 |
Oreopithecini | 3 |
Homininae | 0 |
Ponginae | 1, 3 |
Begun (2015) matrix | |
Taxon | Character state(s) |
Outgroup | 0 |
Ekembo | 0 |
Proconsul | 0 |
Micropithecus | 0 |
Samburupithecus | 0 |
Afropithecus | 0 |
Morotopithecus | 0 |
Heliopithecus | 0 |
Griphopithecus | 1, 3 |
Equatorius | 0 |
Nacholapithecus | 0 |
Otaviptihecus | 0 |
Kenyapithecus | 0, 1 |
Hylobates | 2 |
Oreopithecus | 3 |
Gigantopithecus | 2 |
Khoratpithecus | 2 |
Lufengpithecus | 2 |
Ankarapithecus | 1 |
Sivapithecus | 2 |
Pongo | 2 |
Ouranopithecus | 1, 3 |
Pierolapithecus | 3 |
Dryopithecus | 3 |
Gorilla | 0 |
Pan | 0 |
Sahelanthropus | 0 |
Orrorin | 0 |
Ardipithecus | 0 |
Praeanthropus | 0 |
Paraustralopihtecus | 0 |
Australopithecus | 0 |
Paranthropus | 0 |
Homo | 0, 1, 2, 3 |
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Gilbert, C.C., Pugh, K.D., Fleagle, J.G. (2020). Dispersal of Miocene Hominoids (and Pliopithecoids) from Africa to Eurasia in Light of Changing Tectonics and Climate. In: Prasad, G.V., Patnaik, R. (eds) Biological Consequences of Plate Tectonics. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49753-8_17
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49753-8_17
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-49752-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-49753-8
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)