Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Complications

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Surgical Treatment of Epilepsies

  • 492 Accesses

Abstract

Complications can be defined as unexpected, unwanted, and uncommon events associated with either a diagnostic or therapeutic procedure. However, with respect to differences in definition, grading, and study methodology, data provided on complications noticeably vary between different institutions. Extraoperative invasive EEG recordings are associated with complication rates of 1–3% with the use of depth electrodes, 2–5% with subdural strip electrodes, and 10–15% using grid electrodes. The mortality of temporal resections is below 1%, temporary morbidity ranges between 5% and 10%, and permanent morbidity between 3% and 5%. Most minor adverse effects refer to upper quadrantic or subquadrantic hemianopia as observed in around 50% of patients. Permanent morbidity in frontal and parietal resections ranges between 10% and 15% and may be as high as 30–40% in Rolandic resections. Visual field deficits exceeding superior quadrantanopia occur in 40–50% of occipital lesionectomies or extended lesionectomies. Mortality in extratemporal procedures is in the range of 1–2%. For insular resections, temporary neurological morbidity between 20% and 40% and permanent morbidity between 5% and 10% have been reported. With modified hemispherectomy/hemispherotomy techniques, mortality mainly ranges between 2% and 4%, and there are no essential differences between the approaches used. Morbidity rate is in the range of 30–50%. Callosotomy represents the most invasive non-resective surgical procedure and is associated with a mortality rate of 1–2%, a temporary morbidity in the range of 10–20%, and a permanent morbidity of 5–10%. Serious morbidity with vagal nerve stimulation is below 1%, and between 2% and 4% with deep brain and responsive stimulation. Permanent morbidity of curative stereotactic strategies highly depends on the target and amounts to 30–40% with hypothalamic hamartomas and 3–4% with other targets. Overall, complication rates have noticeably decreased over the last decades.

Wise men learn by others’ harms; fools by their own

Benjamin Franklin

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Tanriverdi T, Ajlan A, Poulin N, Olivier A. Morbidity in epilepsy surgery: an experience based on 2449 epilepsy surgery procedures from a single institution. J Neurosurg. 2009;110:1111–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Rolston JD, Englot DJ, Cornes S, Chang EF. Major and minor complications in extraoperative electrocorticography: a review of a national database. Epilepsy Res. 2016a;122:26–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Rolston JD, Englot DJ, Knowlton RC, Chang E. Rate and complications of adult epilepsy surgery in North America: analysis of multiple databases. Epilepsy Res. 2016b;124:55–62.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Behrens E, Schramm J, Zentner J, König R. Surgical and neurological complications in a series of 708 epilepsy surgery procedures. Neurosurgery. 1997;41:1–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Hamer HM, Morris HH, Mascha EJ, Karafa MT, Bingaman WE, Bej MD, Burgess RC, Dinner DS, Foldvary NR, Hahn JF, Kotagal P, Najm I, Wyllie E, Luders HO. Complications of invasive video-EEG monitoring with subdural grid electrodes. Neurology. 2002;58:97–103.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Rydenhag B, Silander HC. Complications of epilepsy surgery after 654 procedures in Sweden, September 1990-1995: A multicenter study based on the Swedish National Epilepsy Register. Neurosurgery. 2001;49:51–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Blauwblomme T, Ternier J, Romero C, Pier KS, D’Argenzio L, Pressler R, et al. Adverse events occurring during invasive electroencephalogram recordings in children. Neurosurgery. 2011;69:169–75.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Wellmer J, von der Groeben F, Klarmann U, Weber C, Elger CE, Urbach H, Clusmann H, von Lehe M. Risks and benefits of invasive epilepsy surgery workup with implanted subdural and depth electrodes. Epilepsia. 2012;53(8):1322–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Musleh W, Yassari R, Hecox K, et al. Low incidence of subdural grid-related complications in prolonged pediatric EEG monitoring. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2006;42:284–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Engel J Jr, Wiebe S, French J, Sperling M, Williamson P, Spencer D, et al. Practice parameter: temporal lobe and localized neocortical resections for epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2003;44:741–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Englot DJ, Ouyang D, Garcia PA, Barbaro NM, Chang EF. Epilepsy surgery trends in the United States, 1990-2008. Neurology. 2012;78:1200–6.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Pilcher WH, Roberts DW, Flanigin HF, Crandall PH, Wieser HG, Ojemann GA, et al. Complications of epilepsy surgery. In: Engel Jr J, editor. Surgical treatment of the epilepsies. 2nd ed. New York: Raven Press; 1993. p. 565–81.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Tebo CC, Evins AI, Christos PJ, et al. Evolution of cranial epilepsy surgery complication rates: a 32-year systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurosurg. 2014;120:1415–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Bouvier G, Saint-Hilaire JM, Giard N, Lesage J, Cloutier I, Beique R. Depth electrode implantation at hospital Notre-Dame, Montreal. In: Engel Jr J, editor. Surgical treatment of the epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1987. p. 589–93.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Olivier A, Boling W. Stereotactic intracranial recording (stereoelectroencephalography). In: Schmidek HH, Sweet WH, editors. Operative neurosurgical techniques: indications, methods, and results. 4th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2000. p. 1511–28.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Spencer S. Depth versus subdural electrode studies for unlocalized epilepsy. J Epilepsy. 1989;2:123–7.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Arya R, Mangano FT, Horn PS, Holland KD, et al. Adverse events related to extraoperative invasive EEG monitoring with subdural grid electrodes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Epilepsia. 2013;54(5):828–39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Garcia-Lorenzo B, del Pino-Sedeno T, Rocamora R, et al. Stereoelectroencephalography for refractory epileptic patients considered for surgery: systematic review, meta-analysis, and economic evaluation. Neurosurgery. 2019;84:326–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Tandon N, Tong BA, Friedman ER, et al. Analysis of morbidity and outcomes associated with use of subdural grids vs stereoelectroencephalography in patients with intractable epilepsy. JAMA Neurol. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2019.0098.

  20. Burneo JG, Steven DA, McLachlan RS, Parrent AG. Morbidity associated with the use of intracranial electrodes for epilepsy surgery. Can J Neurol Sci. 2006;33:223–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Koubeissi MZ, Puwanat A, Jehi L, Alshekhlee A. In-hospital complications of epilepsy surgery: a six-year nationwide experience. Br J Neurosurg. 2009a;23(5):524–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Behrens E, Zentner J, van Roost D, Hufnagel A, Elger CE, Schramm J. Subdural and depth electrodes in the presurgical evaluation of epilepsy. Acta Neurochir. 1994;128:84–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Van Buren JM. Complications of surgical procedures in the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy. In: Engel Jr J, editor. Surgical treatment of the epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1987. p. 465–75.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Onal C, Otsubo H, Araki T, Chitoku S, Ochi A, Weiss S, Elliott I, Snead OC 3rd, Rutka JT, Logan W. Complications of invasive subdural grid monitoring in children with epilepsy. J Neurosurg. 2003;98:1017–26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Wyler AR, Walker G, Somes G. The morbidity of long-term seizure monitoring using subdural strip electrodes. J Neurosurg. 1991;74:734–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Ross D, Brunberg J, Drury I, Henry T. Intracerebral depth electrode monitoring in partial epilepsy: the morbidity and efficacy of placement using magnetic resonance image-guided stereotactic surgery. Neurosurgery. 1996;39:327–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. De Almeida AN, Olivier A, Quesney F, Dubeau F, Savard G, Andermann F. Efficacy of and morbidity associated with stereoelectroencephalography using computerized tomography- or magnetic resonance imaging-guided electrode implantation. J Neurosurg. 2006b;104:483–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Espinosa J, Olivier A, Andermann F, Quesney F, Dubeau F, Savard G. Morbidity of chronic recording with intracranial depth electrodes in 170 patients. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1994;63:63–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Olivier A, Marchand E, Peters TM, Tyler J. Depth electrodes implantation at the Montreal neurological institute and hospital. In: Engel Jr J, editor. Surgical treatment of the epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1987. p. 595–602.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Talairach J, Bancaud J, Szikla G, Bonis A, Gieger S, Vedrenne C. Approche nouvelle de la neurochirurgie de l’epilepsie: methodologie stereotaxique et resultants therapeutiques. 1. Introduction et historique. Neurochirurgie. 1974;20:1–240.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Spencer DD. Depth implantation at Yale University. In: Engel Jr J, editor. Surgical treatment of the epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1987. p. 603–7.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Blom S, Flink R, Hetta J, Hilton-Brown P, Hoffstedt C, Osterman PO, Spannare B. Interictal and ictal activity recorded with subdural electrodes during preoperative evaluation for surgical treatment of epilepsy. J Epilepsy. 1989;2:9–20.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Hitiris N, Suratman S, Kelly K, Stephen LJ, Sills GJ, Brodie MJ. Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: a search for risk factors. Epilepsy Behav. 2007;10:138–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Rosenbaum TJ, Laxer KD, Vessely M, Brewster SW. Subdural electrodes for seizure focus localization. Neurosurgery. 1986;19:73–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Falowski SM, DiLorenzo DJ, Shannon LR, et al. Optimizations and nuances in neurosurgical technique for the minimization of complications in subdural electrode placement for epilepsy surgery. World Neurosurg. 2015;84:989–97.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Fountas KN, Smith JR. Subdural electrode-associated complications: a 20-year experience. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2007;85:264–72.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Vale FL, Pollock G, Dionisio J, Benbadis SR, Tatum WO. Outcome and complications of chronically implanted subdural electrodes for the treatment of medically resistant epilepsy. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2013;115:985–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Placantonakis DG, Shariff S, Lafaille F, Labar D, Harden C, Hosain S, Kandula P, Schaul N, Kolesnik D, Schwartz TH. Bilateral intracranial electrodes for lateralizing intractable epilepsy: efficacy, risk, and outcome. Neurosurgery. 2010;66:274–83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Swartz BE, Rich JR, Dwan PS, DeSalles A, et al. The safety and efficacy of chronically implanted subdural electrodes: a prospective study. Surg Neurol. 1996;46:87–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Malow BA, Sato S, Kufra CV, Blaxton TA, Figlozzi CM, Theodore WH. Haematoma-related seizures detected during subdural electrode monitoring. Epilepsia. 1995;36:733–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Van Gompel JJ, Worrell GA, Bell ML, Patrick TA, Cascino GD, Raffel C, Marsh WR, Meyer FB. Intracranial electroencephalography with subdural grid electrodes: techniques, complications, and outcomes. Neurosurgery. 2008;63:498–505.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Engel J, Crandall PH, Rausch R. The partial epilepsies. In: Rosenberg RN, Grossman RG, Schoceht S, et al., editors. The clinical neurosciences, vol. 2. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1983. p. 1349–80.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Bernoulli C, Siegfried J, Baumgartner G, et al. Danger of accidental person-to-person transmission of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease by surgery. Lancet. 1977;1:478–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Mullin JP, Shriver M, Alomar S, Najm I, Bulacio J, Chauvel P, et al. Is SEEG safe? A systematic review and meta-analysis of stereo-electroencephalography-related complications. Epilepsia. 2016;57:386–401.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Cardinale F, Rizzi M, Vignati E, et al. Stereoelectroencephalography: retrospective analysis of 742 procedures in a single Centre. Brain. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awz196.

  46. Mulligan L, Vives K, Spencer D. Placement of depth electrodes. In: Lüders H, editor. Textbook of epilepsy surgery: Informa Healthcare; 2008. p. 938–44.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Sansur C, Frysinger RC, Pouratian N, et al. Incidence of symptomatic hemorrhage after stereotactic electrode placement. J Neurosurg. 2007;107:998–1003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Bottan JS, Rubino PA, Lau JC, et al. Robot-assisted insular depth electrode implantation through oblique trajectories: 3-dimensional anatomical nuances, technique, accuracy, and safety. Operat Neurosurg. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1093/ons/opz154.

  49. Munari C. Depth electrode implantation at hospital Sainte Anne, Paris. In: Engel Jr J, editor. Surgical treatment of the epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1987. p. 583–8.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Willems LM, Reif PS, Spyrantis A, et al. Invasive EEG-electrodes in presurgical evaluation of epilepsies: systematic analysis of implantation-, video-EEG-monitoring- and explantation-related complications, and review of literature. Epilepsy Behav. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.05.012.

  51. Cahan LD, Crandall PH. Neurosurgical aspects of epilepsy in children and adolescents. In: Youmans JR, editor. Neurological surgery. Philadelphia, PA: WB Sounders; 1990. p. 4271–87.

    Google Scholar 

  52. De Almeida AN, Marino R, Aguiar PH, Teixeira MJ. Hemispherectomy: a schematic review of the current techniques. Neurosurg Rev. 2006a;29:97–102.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Ljung H, Nordlund A, Strandberg M, et al. Verbal memory decline from hippocampal depth electrodes in temporal lobe surgery for epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2017;58:2143–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Helmstaedter C, Gielen GH, Witt JA. The immediate and short-term effects of bilateral intrahippocampal depth electrodes on verbal memory. Epilepsiy. 2018;59(6):78–84.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Hedegärd E, Bjellvi J, Edelvik A, Rydenhag B, Flink R, Malmgren K. Complications to invasive epilepsy surgery workup with subdural and depth electrodes: a prospective population-based observational study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2014;85:716–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Wiggins GC, Elisevich K, Smith BJ. Morbidity and infection in combined subdural grid and strip electrode investigation for intractable epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 1999;37:73–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Girvin JP. Complications of epilepsy surgery. In: Lüders H, editor. Epilepsy Surgery. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1991. p. 653–60.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Pilcher WH, Rusyniak WG. Complications of epilepsy surgery. Neurosurg Clin North Am. 1993;4:311–25.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Kim SK, Wang KC, Hwang YS, et al. Epilepsy surgery in children: outcomes and complications. J Neurosurg. 2008;1:277–83.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Ventureyra EC, Higgins MJ. Complications of epilepsy surgery in children and adolescents. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1993;19(1):40–56.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Nasreddine W, Beydoun A. Valproate-induced thrombocytopenia: a prospective monotherapy study. Epilepsia. 2008;49:438–45.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Anderson GD, Lin YX, Berge C, et al. Absence of bleeding complications in patients undergoing cortical surgery while receiving valproate treatment. J Neurosurg. 1997;87:252–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Ward MM, Barbaro NM, Laxer KD, et al. Preoperative valproate administration does not increase blood loss during temporal lobectomy. Epilepsia. 1996;37:98–101.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Hader WJ, Tellez Zenteno J, Metcalfe A, Hernandez-Ronquillo L, Wiebe S, Kwon C-S, Jette N. Complications of epilepsy surgery: A systematic review of focal surgical resections and invasive EEG monitoring. Epilepsia. 2013;54(5):840–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Gooneratne IK, Mannan S, de Tisi J, et al. Somatic complications of epilepsy surgery over 25 years at a single center. Epilepsy Res. 2017;132:70–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2017.02.016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Olivier A. Risk and benefit of in the surgery of epilepsy: complications and positive results on seizures tendency and intellectual function. Acta Neurol Scand. 1988;117:114–21.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Ryvlin P, Montavont A, Kahane P. The impact of epilepsy surgery on mortality. Epileptic Disord. 2005;7(1):539–46.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Salanova V, Markand O, Worth R. Temporal lobe epilepsy surgery: complications, and late mortality rate in 215 patients. Epilepsia. 2002;43(2):170–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Hennessy MJ, Langan Y, Elwes RD, et al. A study of mortality after temporal lobe epilepsy surgery. Neurology. 1999;53:1276–83.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Nilsson L, Ahlbom A, Farahmand BY, et al. Mortality in a population-based cohort of epilepsy surgery patients. Epilepsia. 2003;44:575–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. West S, Nolan SJ, Cotton J, et al. Surgery for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;7(7):CD010541.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Bjellvi J, Flink R, Rydenhag B, et al. Complications of epilepsy surgery in Sweden 1996-2010: a prospective, population-based study. J Neurosurg. 2015;122(3):519–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Inoue Y, Mihara T, Seino M. Timing of epilepsy surgery: its relevance for psychosocial rehabilitation. In: Tuxhorn J, Holthausen H, Boenigk H, editors. Pediatric epilepsy syndromes and their surgical treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997. p. 76–84.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Kerezoudis P, McCutcheon B, Murphy ME, et al. Thirty- day postoperative morbidity and mortality after temporal lobectomy for medically refractory epilepsy. J Neurosurg. 2017;23:1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Olivier A, Boling WW, Tanriverdi T. Techniques in epilepsy surgery. The MNI approach. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Simon SL, Telfeian A, Duhaime AC. Complications of invasive monitoring used in intractable pediatric epilepsy. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2003;38:47–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. dÓrio P, Rizzi M, Mariani V, et al. Surgery in patients with childhood-onset epilepsy: analysis of complications and predictive risk factors for a severely complicated course. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2018-318282.

  78. Grivas A, Schramm J, Kral T, et al. Surgical treatment for refractory temporal lobe epilepsy in the elderly: seizure outcome and neuropsychological sequels compared with a younger cohort. Epilepsia. 2006;47(8):1364–72.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Patra S, Elisevich K, Podell K, et al. Influence of age and location of ictal onset on postoperative outcome in patients with localization-related epilepsy. Br J Neurosurg. 2014;28:61–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Murphy M, Smith PD, Wood M, et al. Surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy associated with mesial temporal sclerosis in the older patient: a longterm follow-up. Epilepsia. 2010;51:1024–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Englot DJ, Ouyang D, Wang DD, Rolston JD, Garcia PA, Chang EF. Relationship between hospital surgical volume, lobectomy rates, and adverse perioperative events at US epilepsy centers. J Neurosurg. 2013;118:169–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Lin Y, Harris DA, Curry DJ, Lam S. Trends in outcomes, complications, and hospitalization costs for hemispherectomy in the United States for the years 2000–2009. Epilepsia. 2014;56:139–46.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Brisman MH, Bederson JB, Sen CN, et al. Intracerebral hemorrhage occurring remote from the craniotomy site. Neurosurgery. 1996;39:1114–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. König A, Laas R, Herrmann HD. Cerebellar haemorrhage as a complication after supratentorial craniotomy. Acta Neurochir. 1987;88:104–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Papanastassiou V, Kerr R, Adams C. Contralateral cerebellar hemorrhagic infarction after pterional craniotomy: report of five cases and review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 1996;39:841–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Yoshida S, Yonekawa Y, Yamashita K, et al. Cerebellar hemorrhage after supratentorial craniotomy—report of three cases. Neurol Med Chir. 1990;30:738–43.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Honegger J, Zentner J, Spreer J, et al. Cerebellar hemorrhage arising postoperatively as a complication of supratentorial surgery: a retrospective study. J Neurosurg. 2002;96:248–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Health Quality Ontario. Epilepsy surgery: an evidence summary. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser. 2012;12:1–28.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Pilcher WH, Ojemann GA. Complications of epilepsy surgery. In: Post KD, Friedman E, McCormick P, editors. Postoperative complications in intracranial surgery. New York: Thieme; 1993. p. 157–65.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Brotis AG, Giannis T, Kapsalaki E, et al. Complications after anterior temporal lobectomy for medically intractable epilepsy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1159/000500136.

  91. Guldvog B. Evaluation of epilepsy surgery in Norway 1949–1988. Oslo: University of Oslo; 1993. (dissertation)

    Google Scholar 

  92. Sindou M, Guenot M, Isnard J. Temporo-mesial epilepsy surgery: outcome and complications in 100 consecutive adult patients. Acta Neurochir. 2006;48(1):39–45.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Cohen-Gadol AA, Wilhelmi BG, Collignon F, et al. Long-term outcome of epilepsy surgery among 399 patients with nonlesional seizure foci including temporal lobe sclerosis. J Neurosurg. 2006;104:513–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Georgiadis I, Kapsalaki EZ, Fountas KN. Temporal lobe resective surgery for medically intractable epilepsy: a review of complications and side effects. Epilepsy Res Treat. 2013;2013:752195. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/752195.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Erba G, Winston KR, Adler JR, et al. Temporal lobectomy for complex partial seizures that began in childhood. Surg Neurol. 1992;38(6):424–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Terra-Bustamente VC, Inuzuca LM, Fernandes RM, et al. Temporal lobe epilepsy surgery in children and adolescents: clinical characteristics and postsurgical outcome. Seizure. 2005;14(4):274–81.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Sinclair DB, Aronyk KE, Snyder TJ, et al. Pediatric epilepsy surgery at the University of Alberta: 1988–2000. Pediatr Neurol. 2003;29:302–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Clusmann H, Kral T, Fackeldey E, et al. Lesional mesial temporal lobe epilepsy and limited resections: prognostic factors and outcome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75:1589–96.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  99. Vadera S, Kshettry VR, Klaas P, et al. Seizure-free and neuropsychological outcomes after temporal lobectomy with amygdalohippocampectomy in pediatric patients with hippocampal sclerosis. J Neurosurg. 2012;10:103–7.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Lopez-Gonzalez MA, Gonzalez-Martinez JA, Jehi L, et al. Epilepsy surgery of the temporal lobe in pediatric population: a prospective analysis. Neurosurgery. 2012;70:684–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Schmeiser B, Wagner K, Schulze-Bonhage A, et al. Surgical treatment of mesiotemporal lobe epilepsy: which approach is favorable? Neurosurgery. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyx138.

  102. Schmeiser B, Moritz D, Evangelos K, et al. Visual filed defects following different resective procedures for mesiotemporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2017b;76:39–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Yasargil MG, Krayenbuhl N, Roth P, Hsu SP, Yasargil DC. The selective amygdalohippocampectomy for intractable temporal limbic seizures. J Neurosurg. 2010;112(1):168–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Ormond DR, Clusmann H, Sassen R, et al. Pediatric temporal lobe epilepsy surgery in Bonn and review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyy125.

  105. Koubeissi MZ, Syed TU, Syed I, Jordan J, Alshekhlee A, Kossoff EH. Hemispherectomy-associated complications from the Kids’Inpatient database. Epilepsy Res. 2009b;87:47–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Penfield W, Lende R, Rasmussen T. Manipulation hemiplegia. J Neurosurg. 1961;18:760–76.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Crandall PH. Postoperative management and criteria for evaluation. In: Purpura DP, Penry JK, Walter RD, editors. Advances in neurology, vol. 8. New York: Raven Press; 1975. p. 265–79.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Lende R. Local spasm in cerebral arteries. J Neurosurg. 1978;17:90–103.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Rasmussen T. Surgery for epilepsy arising in regions other than the temporal and frontal lobes. In: Purpura DP, Penry JK, Walter RD, editors. Advances in neurology, vol. 8. New York: Raven Press; 1975a. p. 206–26.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Rasmussen T. Surgical treatment of patients with complex partial seizures. In: Penry JK, Daly DD, editors. Advances in neurology. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1975b. p. 415–49.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Helgason C, Caplan L, Goodwin J, Hedges T. Anterior choroidal artery-territory infarction. Arch Neurol. 1986;43:681–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Katz A, Awad I, Kong A, et al. Extent of resection in temporal lobectomy for epilepsy. II. Memory changes and neurological complications. Epilepsia. 1989;30:763–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Barton JJ, Hefter R, Chang B, et al. The field defects of anterior temporal lobectomy: a quantitative reassessment of Meyer’s loop. Brain. 2005;128:2123–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Hughes TS, Abou-Khalil B, Lavin PJ, et al. Visual field defects after temporal lobe resection: a prospective quantitative analysis. Neurology. 1999;53(1):167–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Nilsson D, Malmgren K, Rydenhag B, et al. Visual field defects after temporal lobectomy – comparing methods and analyzing resection size. Acta Neurolo Scand. 2004;110(5):301–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Tecoma ES, Laxer KD, Barbaro NM, et al. Frequency and characteristics of visual field deficits after surgery for mesial temporal sclerosis. Neurology. 1993;43(6):1235–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Marino R, Rasmussen T. Visual field changes after temporal lobectomy in man. Neurology. 1968;18:825–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Heller AC, Padilla RV, Mamelak AN. Complications of epilepsy surgery in the first 8 years after neurosurgical training. Surg Neurol. 2009;71(6):631–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Falconer M, Wilson J. Visual field changes following anterior temporal lobectomy. Their significance in relation to “Myer’s loop” of the optic radiation. Brain. 1958;81:1–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Freiman TM, Surges R, Vougioukas VI, et al. Complex visual hallucinations (Charles bonnet syndrome) in visual field defects following cerebral surgery. J Neurosurg. 2004;101:846–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Hori T, Yamane F, Ochiai T, et al. Selective subtemporal amygdalohippocampectomy for refractory temporal lobe epilepsy: operative and neuropsychological outcomes. J Neurosurg. 2007;106(1):134–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Thudium MO, Campos AR, Urbach H, et al. The basal temporal approach for mesial temporal surgery: sparing the Meyer loop with navigated diffusion tensor tractography. Neurosurgery. 2010;67:385–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Berger MS, Kincaid J, Ojemann G, et al. Brain mapping techniques to maximize resection, safety and seizure control in children with brain tumors. Neurosurgery. 1989;25:786–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Ojemann GA. Individual variability in cortical localization of language. J Neurosurg. 1979;50:164–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Ojemann GA. Brain organization for language from the perspective of electrical stimulation mapping. Behav Brain Sci J. 1983:189–230.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Ojemann GA, Ojemann J, Lettich E, et al. Cortical language localization in left, dominant hemisphere. J Neurosurg. 1989;71:316–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Penfield W, Jasper H. Epilepsy and the functional anatomy of the human brain. Boston: Little, Brown; 1954. p. 896.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Wyllie E, Lüders H, Morris HH, et al. Clinical outcome after complete or partial cortical resection for intractable epilepsy. Neurology. 1987;37:825–35.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Falowski SM, Wallace D, Kanner A, et al. Tailored temporal lobectomy for medically intractable epilepsy: evaluation of pathology and predictors of outcome. Neurosurgery. 2012;71(3):703–9; discussion 709

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Helmstaedter C, Witt J-A. Clinical neuropsychology in epilepsy: theoretical and practical issues. Handb Clin Neurol. 2012;107:437–59.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Hermann BP, Wyler AR. Neuropsychological outcome of anterior temporal lobectomy. J Epilepsy. 1988;1:35–45.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Milner B. Psychological defects produced by temporal lobe excision. Res Publ Assoc Res Neur Ment Dis. 1958;36:244–57.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Milner B. Visually-guided maze learning in man: effects of bilateral hippocampal, bilateral frontal and unilateral cerebral lesions. Neuropsychologia. 1965;3:317–38.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Milner B. Visual recognition and recall after right temporal lobe excision in man. Neuropsychologia. 1968;6:191–209.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Rausch R, Crandall PH. Psychological status related to control of temporal lobe seizures. Epilepsia. 1982;23:191–202.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Sherman EM, Wiebe S, Fay-McClymont TB. Neuropsychological outcomes after epilepsy surgery: systematic review and pooled estimates. Epilepsia. 2011;52(5):857–69.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Delgado-Escueta A, Treiman D, Walsh G. The treatable epilepsies. N Engl J Med. 1983;308:1576–84.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Schaller C, Zentner J. Vasospastic reactions in response to the transsylvian 468. Approach. Surg Neurol. 1998;49(2):170–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Lackner P, Koppelstaetter F, Ploner P, et al. Cerebral vasospasm following temporal lobe epilepsy surgery. Neurology. 2012;78:1215–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Schmeiser B, Zentner J, Steinhoff BJ, Schulze-Bonhage A, Kogias E, Wendling A-S Hammen T. Functional hemispherectomy is safe and effective in adult patients. Epilepsy Behav. 2017a;77:19–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Delev D, Oehl B, Steinhoff BJ. Surgical treatment of extratemporal epilepsy: results and prognostic factors. Neurosurgery. 2019;84(1):242–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Van Offen M, van Rijen PC, Leijten FS, et al. Central lobe epilepsy surgery – (functional) results and how to evaluate them. Epilepsy Res. 2017;130:37–46.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Behdad A, Limbrick DD, Bertrand M, et al. Epilepsy surgery in children with seizures arising from the rolandic cortex. Epilepsia. 2009;50(6):1450–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Benifla M, Sala F Jr, Jane J, et al. Neurosurgical management of intractable rolandic epilepsy in children: role of resection in eloquent cortex. Clinical article. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2009;4(3):199–216.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. von Lehe M, Wellmer J, Urbach H, Schramm J, Elger CE, Clusmann H. Insular lesionectomy for refractory epilepsy: management and outcome. Brain. 2009;132(Pt 4):1048–56.

    Google Scholar 

  146. Elsharkawy AE, Alabbasi AH, Pannek H, et al. Outcome of frontal lobe epilepsy surgery in adults. Epilepsy Res. 2008a;81:97–106.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Elsharkawy AE, Pannek H, Schulz R, et al. Outcome after extratemporal epilepsy surgery. Experience of a single center. Neurosurgery. 2008b;63:516–26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Hanáková P, Brázdil M, Novák Z, et al. Long-term outcome and predictors of resective surgery prognosis in patients with refractory extratemporal epilepsy. Seizure. 2014;23(4):266–73.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Sarkis RA, Jehi L, Najm IM, Kotagal P, Bingaman WE. Seizure outcomes following multilobar epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia. 2012;53(1):44–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Pondal-Sordo M, Diosy D, Téllez-Zenteno JF, et al. Epilepsy surgery involving the sensory-motor cortex. Brain. 2006;129:3307–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Ostergard TA, Miller JP. Surgery for epilepsy in the primary motor cortex: A critical review. Epilepsy Behav. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.06.036.

  152. Harward SC, Chen WC, Rolston JD, et al. Seizure outcomes in occipital lobe and posterior quadrant epilepsy surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosurgery. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyx158.

  153. Binder DK, Lehe von M, Kral T, et al. Surgical treatment of occipital lobe epilepsy. J Neurosurg 2008;109(1):57-69.

    Google Scholar 

  154. Heo W, Kim JS, Chung CK, et al. Relationship between cortical resection and visual function after occipital lobe epilepsy surgery. J Neurosurg. 2017; https://doi.org/10.3171/2017.5.JNS162963.

  155. Swartz BE, Gado-Escueta AV, Walsh GO, et al. Surgical outcomes in pure frontal lobe epilepsy and foci that mimic them. Epilepsy Res. 1998;29:97–108.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Schramm J, Kral T, Kurthen M, et al. Surgery to treat focal frontal lobe epilepsy in adults. Neurosurgery. 2002;51:644–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Kellinghaus C, Luders HO. Frontal lobe epilepsy. Epileptic Disord. 2004;6:223–39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Pilcher C, Meacham WR, Holbrook TJ. Partial excision of the motor cortex in treatment of Jacksonian convulsions. Results of forty cases. Arch Surg. 1947;54:633–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Lehman R, Andermann F, Olivier A, Tandon PN, Quesney LF, Rasmussen TB. Seizures with onset in the sensorimotor face area: clinical patterns and results of surgical treatment in 20 patients. Epilepsia. 1994;35:1117–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Delev D, Send K, Wagner J, et al. Epilepsy surgery of the rolandic and immediate perirolandic cortex: surgical outcome and prognostic factors. Epilepsia. 2014;55:1585–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Cohen-Gadol AA, Britton JW, Collignon FP, et al. Nonlesional central lobule seizures: use of awake cortical mapping and subdural grid monitoring for resection of seizure focus. J Neurosurg. 2003;98:1255–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Kim YH, Kim CH, Kim JS, Lee SK, Han JH, Kim CY, et al. Topographical risk factor analysis of new neurological deficits following precentral gyrus resection. Neurosurgery. 2015;76:714–20. [discussion 20]

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Devinsky O, Romanelli P, Orbach D, Pacia S, Doyle W. Surgical treatment of multifocal epilepsy involving eloquent cortex. Epilepsia. 2003;44:718–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Sandok EK, Cascino GD. Surgical treatment for perirolandic lesional epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1998;39(Suppl 4):S42–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Cukiert A, Buratini JA, Machado E, et al. Results of surgery in patients with refractory extratemporal epilepsy with normal or nonlocalizing magnetic resonance findings investigated with subdural grids. Epilepsia. 2001a;42:889–94.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Cukiert A, Buratini JA, Machado E, et al. Seizure’s outcome after cortical resections including the face and tongue rolandic areas in patients with refractory epilepsy and normal MRI submitted to subdural grids’ implantations. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2001b;59:717–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Otsubo H, Chitoku S, Ochi A, Jay V, Rutka JT, Smith ML, et al. Malignant rolandic-sylvian epilepsy in children: diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Neurology. 2001;57:590–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Blume WT, Wiebe S, Tapsell LM. Occipital epilepsy: lateral versus mesial. Brain. 2005;128(Pt 5):1209–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Kun Lee S, Young Lee S, Kim DW, Soo Lee D, Chung CK. Occipital lobe epilepsy: clinical characteristics, surgical outcome, and role of diagnostic modalities. Epilepsia. 2005;46:688–95.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Boesebeck F, Schulz R, May T, Ebner A. Lateralizing semiology predicts the seizure outcome after epilepsy surgery in the posterior cortex. Brain. 2002;125:2320–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Tandon N, Alexopoulos AV, Warbel A, Najm IM, Bingaman WE. Occipital epilepsy: spatial categorization and surgical management. J Neurosurg. 2009;110(2):306–18.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Liava A, Mai R, Tassi L, et al. Paediatric epilepsy surgery in the posterior cortex: a study of 62 cases. Epileptic Disord. 2014;16:141–64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Malak R, Bouthillier A, Carmant L, et al. Microsurgery of epileptic foci in the insular region. J Neurosurg. 2009;110:1153–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Ikegaya N, Takahashi A, Kaido T, et al. Surgical strategy to avoid ischemic complications of the pyramidal tract in resective epilepsy surgery of the insula: technical case report. J Neurosurg. 2017; https://doi.org/10.3171/2017.1.JNS161278.

  175. Bouthillier A, Nguyen DK. Epilepsy surgeries requiring an operculoinsular cortectomy: operative technique and results. Neurosurgery. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyx080.

  176. Weil A, Minh N, Jayakar P, et al. Medically resistant pediatric insular-opercular/perisylvian epilepsy. Part 2: outcome following resective surgery. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2016; https://doi.org/10.3171/2016.4.PEDS15618.

  177. Lang FF, Olansen NE, DeMonte F, et al. Surgical resection of intrinsic insular tumors: complications avoidance. J Neurosurg. 2001;95:638–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Neuloh G, Pechstein U, Schramm J. Motor tract monitoring during insular glioma surgery. J Neurosurg. 2007;106:582–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Tamura A, Kasai T, Akazawa K, et al. Long insular artery infarction: characteristics of a previously unrecognized entity. Am J Neuroradiol. 2014;35:466–71.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  180. Duffau H, Capelle L, Lopes M, Bitar A, Sichez JP, van Effenterre R. Medically intractable epilepsy from insular low-grade gliomas: improvement after an extended lesionectomy. Acta Neurochir. 2002;144:563–72; discussion 572–3

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Simon M, Neuloh G, von Lehe M, Meyer B, Schramm J. Insular gliomas: the case for surgical management. J Neurosurg. 2009;110(4):685–95.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Zentner J, Meyer B, Stangl A, Schramm J. Intrinsic tumors of the insula: a prospective surgical study of 30 patients. J Neurosurg. 1996;85(2):263–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Dylgjeri S, Taussig D, Chipaux M, Lebas A, Fohlen M, Bulteau C, et al. Insular and insulo-opercular epilepsy in childhood: an SEEG study. Seizure. 2014;23:300–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Surges R, Elger CE. Reoperation after failed resective epilepsy surgery. Seizure. 2013;22:493–501.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Krucoff MO, Chan AY, Harward SC, et al. Rates and predictors of success and failure in repeat epilepsy surgery: A meta‐analysis and systematic review. Epilepsia. 2017;58(12):2133–42.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  186. Grote A, Witt JA, Surges R, von Lehe M, Pieper M, Elger CE, Helmstaedter C, Ormond DR, Schramm J, Delev D. A second chance—reoperation in patients with failed surgery for intractable epilepsy: long-term outcome, neuropsychology and complications. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2016;87:379–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Germano IM, Poulin N, Olivier A. Reoperation for recurrent temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurosurg. 1994;81:31–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. González-Martínez JA, Srikijvilaikul T, Nair D, Bingaman WE. Long-term seizure outcome in reoperation after failure of epilepsy surgery. Neurosurgery. 2007;60:873–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Salanova V, Quesney LF, Rasmussen T, Andermann F, Olivier A. Reevaluation of surgical failures and the role of reoperation in 39 patients with frontal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1994;35:70–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Wyler AR, Hermann BP, Richey ET. Results of reoperation for failed epilepsy surgery. J Neurosurg. 1989;71:815–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Siegel AM, Cascino GD, Meyer FB, McClelland RL, So EL, Marsh WR, et al. Resective reoperation for failed epilepsy surgery: seizure outcome in 64 patients. Neurology. 2004;63:2298–302.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Jung R, Aull‐Watschinger S, Moser D, et al. Is reoperation an option for patients with temporal lobe epilepsy after failure of surgery? Seizure. 2013;22:502–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Pati S, Abla AA, Rekate HL, Ng YT. Repeat surgery for hypothalamic hamartoma in refractory epilepsy. Neurosurg Focus. 2011;30:E3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Brian JE, Deshpande JK, McPherson RW. Management of cerebral hemispherectomy in children. J Clin Anesth. 1990;2:91–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Carson BS, Javedan SP, Freeman JM, Vining EP, Zuckerberg AL, Lauer JA, Guarnieri M. Hemispherectomy: a hemidecortication approach and review of 52 cases. J Neurosurg. 1996;84:903–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Peacock WJ, Wehby-Grant MC, Shields WD, Shewmon DA, Chugani HT, Sankar R, Vinters HV. Hemispherectomy for intractable seizures in children: a report of 58 cases. Childs Nerv Syst. 1996;12:376–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Hendrick EB, Hoffman HJ, Hudson AR. Hemispherectomy in children. Clin Neurosurg. 1969;16:315–27.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Wilson PJE. Cerebral hemispherectomy for infantile hemiplegia. A report of 50 cases. Brain. 1970a;93:147–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Wilson PJE. More “second thoughts” on hemispherectomy in infantile hemiplegia. Dev Med Child. 1970b;12:799–800.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Rasmussen T. Commentary: extratemporal cortical excisions and hemispherectomy. In: Engel J, editor. Surgical Treatment of the Epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1987. p. 417–24.

    Google Scholar 

  201. White HH. Cerebral hemispherectomy in the treatment of infantile hemiplegia. Review of the literature and report of two cases. Confin Neurol. 1961;21:1–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Falconer MA, Wilson PJE. Complications related to delayed hemorrhage after hemispherectomy. J Neurosurg. 1969;30:413–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Rasmussen T. Postoperative superficial cerebral hemosiderosis of the brain, its diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Am Neurol Assoc. 1973;98:133–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Wilson PJE. More “second thoughts” on hemispherectomy in infantile hemiplegia. Dev Med Child. 1980;12:799–800. (letter)

    Google Scholar 

  205. Carmichael EA. The current status of hemispherectomy for infantile hemiplegia. Clin Proc Child Hosp Dist Columbia. 1966;22:285–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Davies KG, Maxwell RE, French LA. Hemispherectomy for intractable seizures: long-term results in 17 patients followed for up to 38 years. J Neurosurg. 1993;78:733–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Griffith HB. Cerebral hemispherectomy for infantile hemiplegia in the light of the late results. Ann R Coll Surg. 1967;41:183–201.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Laine E, Pruvot P, Osson D. Resultats eloignes de l’hemispherectomie dans les cas d’hemiatrophie cerebrale infantile generatrice dépilepsie. Neurochirurgie. 1964;10:507–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Oppenheimer DR, Griffith HB. Persistent intracranial bleeding as a complication of hemispherectomy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1966;9:229–40.

    Google Scholar 

  210. Villemure J-G. Hemispherectomy techniques. In: Tuxhorn I, Holthausen H, Boenigk H, editors. Paediatric epilepsy syndromes and their surgical treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997. p. 729–38.

    Google Scholar 

  211. Hoffman HJ, Hendrick EB, Dennis M, Armstrong D. Hemispherectomy for Sturge-Weber syndrome. Childs Brain. 1979;5:233–48.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Sood S, Ilyas M, Marapudi NI, et al. Anatomical hemispherectomy revisited—outcome, blood loss, hydrocephalus, and absence of chronic hemosiderosis. Childs Nerv Syst. 2019;35:1341–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Schramm J. Hemispherectomy techniques. Neurosurgery. 2002;37:113–34.

    Google Scholar 

  214. Freeman JM, Vining EPG, Pillas DJ, Uematsu S, Carson B, Brandt J, Boatman D, Pulsifer MB, Zuckerberg A. Seizure outcome after hemispherectomy: the John Hopkins experience. In: Tuxhorn I, Holthausen H, Boenigk H, editors. Paediatric epilepsy syndromes and their surgical treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997. p. 743–8.

    Google Scholar 

  215. Kossoff EH, Vining EP, Pillas DJ, Pyzik PL, Avellino AM, Carson BS, Freeman JM. Hemispherectomy for intractable unihemispheric epilepsy. Etiology versus outcome. Neurology. 2003;61:887–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  216. Villemure JG. Hemispherectomy. In: Shorovon S, Dreifuss F, Fish D, Thomas D, editors. The treatment of epilepsy. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1996. p. 713–21.

    Google Scholar 

  217. Schramm J, Delev D, Wagner J, Elger CE, von Lehe M. Seizure outcome, functional outcome, and quality of life after hemispherectomy in adults. Acta Neurochir. 2012;154:1603–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Villemure JG, Vernet O, Delalande O. Hemispheric disconnection: Callosotomy and hemispherectomy. Adv Tech Stand Neurosurg. 2000;26:25–78.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Delalande O, Bulteau C, Dellatolas G, Fohlen M, Jalin C, Buret V, Viguier D, Dorfmuller G, Jambaque I. Vertical parasagittal hemispherectomy: surgical procedures and clinical long-term outcomes in a population of 83 children. Neurosurgery. 2007;60:19–32.

    Google Scholar 

  220. Terra-Bustamante VC, Inuzuka LM, Fernandes RM, et al. Outcome of hemispheric surgeries for refractory epilepsy in pediatric patients. Childs Nerv Syst. 2007;23(3):321–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Holthausen H, May TW, Adams CTB, Andermann F, Comair Y, Delalande O, Duchowny M, Freeman JM, Hoffman HJ, et al. Seizures post hemispherectomy. In: Tuxhorn I, Holthausen H, Boenigk H, editors. Paediatric epilepsy syndromes and their surgical treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997a. p. 749–73.

    Google Scholar 

  222. Holthausen H, Strobl K, Pieper T, Teixeira VA, Oppel F. Prediction of motor functions post hemispherectomy. In: Tuxhorn I, Holthausen H, Boenigk H, editors. Paediatric epilepsy syndromes and their surgical treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997b. p. 785–98.

    Google Scholar 

  223. Vadera S, Griffith SD, Rosenbaum BP, Seicean A, Kshettry VR, Kelly ML, Weil RJ, Bingaman W, Jehi L. National Trends and in-hospital complication rates in more than 1600 hemispherectomies from 1988–2010. Neurosurgery. 2015;77:185–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. De Palma L, Pietrafusa N, Gozzo F, et al. Outcome after hemispherotomy in patients with intractable epilepsy: comparison of techniques in the Italian experience. Epilepsy Behav. 2019;93:22–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Di Rocco C, Iannelli A. Hemimegalencephaly and intractable epilepsy: complications of hemispherectomy and their correlations with the surgical technique. A report on 15 cases. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2000;33:198–207.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Rasmussen T, Andermann F. Hemispherectomy for seizures revisited. Can J Neurol Sci. 1983;10:71–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Tinuper P, Andermann F, Villemure JG, Rasmussen TB, Quesney LF. Functional hemispherectomy for the treatment of epilepsy associated with hemiplegia: rationale, indications, results, and comparison with callosotomy. Ann Neurol. 1988;24:27–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Cats EA, Kho KH, Van Nieuwenhuizen O, Van Veelen CW, Gosselaar PH, Van Rijen PC. Seizure freedom after functional hemispherectomy and a possible role for the insular cortex: the Dutch experience. J Neurosurg. 2007;107:275–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Kossoff EH, Buck C, Freeman JM. Outcomes of 32 hemispherectomies for Sturge-Weber syndrome worldwide. Neurology. 2002;59:1735–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  230. Basheer SN, Connolly MB, Lautzenhiser A, Sherman EM, Hendson G, Steinbok P. Hemispheric surgery in children with refractory epilepsy: seizure outcome, complications, and adaptive function. Epilepsia. 2007;48:133–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Shimizu H. Our experience with pediatric epilepsy surgery focusing on corpus callosotomy and hemispherectomy. Epilepsia. 2005;46(Suppl 1):30–1.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Lam S, Mathern GW. Functional hemsispherectomy at UCLA. In: Cataltepe O, Jallo GI, editors. Pediatric Epilepsy. New York: Thieme; 2010. p. 230–40.

    Google Scholar 

  233. Binder DK, Schramm J. Transsylvian functional hemispherectomy. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22(8):960–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. Shimizu H, Maehara T. Modification of peri-insular hemispherectomy and surgical results. Neurosurgery. 2000;47:367–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Villemure JG, Adams CB, Hoffman HJ, et al. Hemispherectomy. In: Engel J, editor. Surgical treatment of the epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1993. p. 511–8.

    Google Scholar 

  236. Vining EP, Freeman JM, Brandt J, et al. Progressive unilateral encephalopathy of childhood (Rasmussen´s syndrome): a reappraisal. Epilepsia. 1993;34:639–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. Kestle J, Connolly M, Cochrane D. Pediatric peri-insular hemispherotomy. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2000;32:44–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Kwan A, Ng WH, Otsubo H, Ochi A, Snead OC, Tamber MS, Rutka JT. Hemispherectomy for the control of intractable epilepsy in childhood: comparison of 2 surgical techniques in a single institution. Neurosurgery. 2010;67:429–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Adams CBT. Hemispherectomy: a modification. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1983;46:617–9.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  240. Villemure JG, Mascott CR. Peri-insular hemispherectomy: surgical principles and anatomy. Neurosurgery. 1995;37:975–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Gonzalez-Martinez JA, Gupta A, Kotagal P, Lachhwani D, Wyllie E, Luders HO, Bingaman WE. Hemispherectomy for catastrophic epilepsy in infants. Epilepsia. 2005;46:1518–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Gaubatz J, Ernst L, Prillwitz CC, et al. Pyramidal tract and alternate motor fibers complementarily mediate motor compensation in patients after hemispherotomy. Nature Sci Rep. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-57504-x.

  243. Fujimoto A, Okanishi T, Sato K, et al. Hemispherotomy can cause post-operative strabismus. Brain Dev. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2019.08.011.

  244. Wilson DH, Reeves A, Gazzaniga M, Culver C. Cerebral commissurotomy for control of intractable seizures. Neurology. 1977;27:708–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Murro AM, Flanigan HF, Gallagher BB. Corpus callosotomy for the treatment of intractable epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 1988;2:44–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Wyler AR. Corpus callosotomy in the treatment of epilepsy. Contemp Neurosurg. 1990;12:1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  247. Maerhara T, Shimizu H, Oda M, Arai N. Surgical treatment of children with intractable epilepsy. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 1996;36:306–9.

    Google Scholar 

  248. Maehara T, Shimizu H. Surgical outcome of corpus callosotomy in patients with drop attacks. Epilepsia. 2001;42:67–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Nei M, O’Connor M, Liporace J, Sperling MR. Refractory generalized seizures: response to corpus callosotomy and vagal nerve stimulation. Epilepsia. 2006;47:115–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. Jea A, Vachhrajani S, Johnson KK, Rutka JT. Corpus callosotomy in children with intractable epilepsy using frameless stereotactic neuronavigation: 12-year experience et the Hospital for sick children in Toronto. Neurosurg Focus. 2008;25:E7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Sunaga S, Shimizu H, Sugano H. Long-term follow-up of seizure outcomes after corpus callosotomy. Seizure. 2009;18:124–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  252. Purves SJ, Wada JA, Woodhurst WB, Moyes PD, Strauss E, Kosaka B, Li D. Results of anterior corpus callosum section in 24 patients with medically intractable seizures. Neurology. 1988;38:1194–201.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  253. Van Wagenen WP, Herren RY. Surgical division of commisural pathways in the corpus callosum: relation to spread of an epileptic attack. Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1940;44:740–59.

    Google Scholar 

  254. Wilson DH, Reeves A, Gazzaniga M. “Central” commissurotomy for intractable generalized epilepsy: series two. Neurology. 1982;32:687–97.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. Spencer SS. Corpus callosum section and other disconnection procedures for medically intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1988;29:85–99.

    Google Scholar 

  256. Spencer SS, Spencer DD, Williamson PD, Sass K, Novelly RA, Mattson RH. Corpus callosotomy for epilepsy. I Seizure effects. Neurology. 1988;38:19–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Makari G, Holmes G, Murro A. Corpus callosotomy for the treatment of intractable epilepsy in children. J Epilepsy. 1989;2:1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  258. Luat A, Asano F, Kumar A, et al. Corpus Callosotomy for intractable epilepsy revisited: the Children’s Hospital of Michigan Series. J Child Neurol. 2017;32(7):624–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  259. Reeves AG, Risse G. Neurological effects of callosotomy. In: Reeves AG, Roberts DW, editors. Epilepsy and the corpus callosoum 2. Advances in behavioral biology, vol. 45. New York: Plenum; 1995. p. 241–51.

    Google Scholar 

  260. Blount JP, Langburt W, Otsubo H, Chitoku S, Ochi A, Weiss S, Snead OC, Rutka JT. Multiple subpial transections in the treatment of pediatric epilepsy. J Neurosurg. 2004;100:118–24. https://doi.org/10.3171/ped.2004.100.2.0118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  261. Sawhney IM, Robertson IJ, Polkey CE, Binnie CD, Elwes RD. Multiple subpial transection: a review of 21 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;58:344–9.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  262. Rougier A, Sundstorm L, Claverie B, Saint-Hilaire JM, Labrecque R, Lurton D, Bouvier G. Multiple subpial transection: report of 7 cases. Epilepsy Res. 1996;24:57–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  263. Mulligan LP, Spencer DD, Spencer SS. Multiple subpial transections: the Yale experience. Epilepsia. 2001;42:226–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Revesz D, Rydenhag B, Ben-Menachem E. Complications and safety of vagus nerve stimulation: 25 years of experience at a single center. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2016;18:97–104.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  265. Rychlicki F, Zamponi N, Cesaroni E, Corpaci L, Trignani R, Ducati A, Scerrati M. Complications of vagal nerve stimulation for epilepsy in children. Neurosurg Rev. 2006;29:103–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Murphy JV, Hornig GW, Schallert GS, Tilton CL. Adverse events in children receiving intermittent left vagal nerve stimulation. Pediatr Neurol. 1998;19:42–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Alexopoulos AV, Kotagal P, Loddenkemper T, Hammel J, Bingaman WE. Long-term results with vagus nerve stimulation in children with pharmacoresistant epilepsy. Seizure. 2006;15:491–503.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  268. Coykendall DS, Gauderer MW, Blouin BB, Morales A. Vagus nerve stimulation for the management of seizures in children: an 8 year experience. J Pediatr Surg. 2010;45:1479–83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  269. Elliott RE, Morsi A, Kalhorn SP, Marcus J, Sellin J, Kang M, Silverberg A, Rivera E, Geller E, Carlson C, Devinsky O, Doyle WK. Vagus nerve stimulation in 436 consecutive patients with treatment-resistant epilepsy: long-term outcomes and predictors of response. Epilepsy Behav. 2011a;20:57–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  270. Hornig GW, Murphy JV, Schallert G, Tilton C. Left vagus nerve stimulation in children with refractory epilepsy: an update. South Med J. 1997;90:484–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  271. Kang HC, Hwang YS, Kim DS, Kim HD. Vagus nerve stimulation in pediatric intractable epilepsy: a Korean bicentric study. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2006;99:93–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  272. Spuck S, Tronnier V, Orosz I, Schönweiler R, Sepehrnia A, Nowak G, et al. Operative and technical complications of vagus nerve stimulator implantation. Neurosurgery. 2010;67:489–94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  273. Tanganelli P, Ferrero S, Colotto P, Regesta G. Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of medically intractable seizures. Evaluation of long-term outcome. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2002;105:9–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  274. Ardesch JJ, Buschman HP, Wagener-Schimmel LJ, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for medically refractory epilepsy: a long-term follow-up study. Seizure. 2007;16(7):579–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Elliott RE, Rodgers SD, Bassani L, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for children with treatment-resistant epilepsy: a consecutive series of 141 cases. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2011c;7:491–500.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  276. Huf RL, Mamelak A, Kneedy-Cayem K. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy: 2-year prospective open-label study of 40 subjects with refractory epilepsy and low IQ who are living in long-term care facilities. Epilepsy Behav. 2005;6:417–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  277. Qiabi M, Bouthillier A, Carmant L, Nguyen DK. Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: the notre-dame hospital experience. Can J Neurol Sci. 2011;38:902–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. Ben-Menachem E. Vagus nerve stimulation, side effects, and long-term safety. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2001;18:415–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. Patel NC, Edwards MS. Vagal nerve stimulator pocket infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23:681–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  280. Patwardhan RV, Stong B, Bebin EM, Mathisen J, Grabb PA. Efficacy of vagal nerve stimulation in children with medically refractory epilepsy. Neurosurgery. 2000;47:1353–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  281. Smyth MD, Tubbs RS, Bebin EM, Grabb PA, Blount JP. Complications of chronic vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy in children. J Neurosurg. 2003;99:500–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  282. Spuck S, Nowak G, Sperner J. TronnierV. Implantation und Komplikationen der Vagusnervstimulation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;8(4):16–20.

    Google Scholar 

  283. Kahlow H, Olivecrona M. Complications of vagal nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: a single center longitudinal study of 143 patients. Seizure. 2013;22:827–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  284. Kabir SM, Rajaraman C, Rittey C, Zaki HS, Kemeny AA, McMullan J. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with intractable epilepsy: indications, complications and outcome. Childs Nerv Syst. 2009;25:1097–100.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. Handforth A, DeGiorgio CM, Schachter SC, Uthman BM, Naritoku DK, Tecoma ES, Henry TR, Collins SD, Vaughn BV, Gilmartin RC, Labar DR, Morris GL 3rd, Salinsky MC, Osorio I, Ristanovic RK, Labiner DM, Jones JC, Murphy JV, Ney GC, Wheless JW. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy for partial-onset seizures: a randomized active-control trial. Neurology. 1998;51:48–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  286. Vonck K, Thadani V, Gilbert K, Dedeurwaerdere S, De Groote L, De Herdt V, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy: a transatlantic experience. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;21:283–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  287. Ben-Menachem E, Manon-Espaillat R, Ristanovic R, Wilder BJ, Stefan H, Mirza W, Tarver WB, Wernicke JF. Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of partial seizures: 1. A controlled study of effect on seizures. First international Vagus nerve stimulation study group. Epilepsia. 1994;35:616–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. DeGiorgio CM, Schachter SC, Handforth A, Salinsky M, Thompson J, Uthman B, Reed R, Collins S, Tecoma E, Morris GL, Vaughn B, Naritoku DK, Henry T, Labar D, Gilmartin R, Labiner D, Osorio I, Ristanovic R, Jones J, Murphy J, Ney G, Wheless J, Lewis P, Heck C. Prospective long-term study of vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of refractory seizures. Epilepsia. 2000;41:1195–200.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  289. Englot DJ, Chang EF, Auguste KI. Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: a meta-analysis of efficacy and predictors of response. J Neurosurg. 2011a;115:1248–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Englot DJ, Chang EF, Auguste KI. Efficacy of vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy by patient age, epilepsy duration, and seizure type. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2011b;22:443–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nec.2011.07.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  291. Air EL, Ghomri YM, Tyagi R, Grande AW, Crone K, Mangano FT. Management of vagal nerve stimulator infections: do they need to be removed? J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2009;3(1):73–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  292. Morris GL, Gloss D, Buchhalter J, Mack KJ, Nichels K, Harden C. Evidence-based guideline update: vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy. Neurology. 2013;81:1453–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  293. Robinson LC, Pharm D, Winston KR. Relationship of vocal cord paralysis to the coil diameter of vagus nerve stimulator leads. Neurosurgery. 2015;122:532–5.

    Google Scholar 

  294. Ramsay RE, Uthman BM, Augustinsson LE, Upton AR, Naritoku D, Willis J, Treig T, Barolat G, Wernicke JF. Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of partial seizures: 2. Safety, side effects, and tolerability. First international Vagus nerve stimulation study group. Epilepsia. 1994;35:627–36.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. MacDonald J, Couldwell WT. Revision of vagal nerve stimulator electrodes: technical approach. Acta Neurochir. 2004;146:567–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Ben-Menachem E, Hellstrom K, Waldton C, Augustinson LE. Evaluation of refractory epilepsy treated with vagus nerve stimulation for up to 5 years. Neurology. 1999;52:1265–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  297. Couch JD, Gilman AM, Doyle WK. Long-term expectations of vagus nerve stimulation: a look at battery replacement and revision surgery. Neurosurgery. 2016;78:42–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  298. Rijkers K, Berfelo MW, Cornips EM, et al. Hardware failure in vagus nerve stimulation therapy. Acta Neurochir. 2008;150:403–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  299. Dlouhy BJ, Viljoen SV, Kung DK, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation after lead revision. Neurosurg Focus. 2012;32:E11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  300. Espinosa J, Aiello MT, Naritoku DK. Revision and removal of stimulating electrodes following long-term therapy with the vagus nerve stimulator. Surg Neurol. 1999;51:659–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  301. Ortler M, Unterhofer C, Dobesberger J, et al. Complete removal of vagus nerve stimulator generator and electrodes. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2010;5:191–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  302. Aalbers MW, Rijkers K, Klinkenberg S, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation lead removal or replacement: surgical technique, institutional experience, and literature overview. Acta Neurochir. 2015;157:1917–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  303. Shaffer MJ, Jackson CE, Szabo CA, Simpson CB. Vagal nerve stimulation: clinical and electrophysiological effects on vocal fold function. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2005;114:7–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  304. Kalkanis JG, Krishna P, Espinosa JA, Naritoku DK. Self-inflicted vocal cord paralysis in patients with vagus nerve stimulators. Report of two cases. J Neurosurg. 2002;96:949–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  305. Vagus Nerve Stimulation Study Group. A randomized controlled trial of chronic vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of medically intractable seizures. Neurology. 1995;45(2):224–30.

    Google Scholar 

  306. Tran Y, Shah AK, Mittal S. Lead breakage and vocal cord paralysis following blunt neck trauma in a patient with vagal nerve stimulator. J Neurol Sci. 2011;304:132–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  307. Kim W, Clancy RR, Liu GT. Horner syndrome associated with implantation of a vagus nerve stimulator. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131:383–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  308. Clark A, Kupermann RA, Auguste KI, et al. Intractable episodic bradycardia resulting from progressive lead traction in an epileptic child with a vagus nerve stimulator: a delayed complication. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2012;9:389–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  309. Landy HJ, Ramsay RE, Slater J, Casiano RR, Morgan R. Vagus nerve stimulation for complex partial seizures: surgical technique, safety, and efficacy. J Neurosurg. 1993;78:26–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  310. Helmers SL, Whenless JW, Frost M, Gates J, Levisohn P, Tardo C, Conry JA, Yalnizoglou D, Madsen JR. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy in pediatric patients with refractory epilepsy: a retrospective study. J Child Neurol. 2001;16:843–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  311. Tatum WO, Moore DB, Stecker MM, et al. Ventricual asystole during vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy in humans. Neurology. 1999;52:1267–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  312. Zalvan C, Sulica L, Wolf S, Cohen J, Gonzalez-Yanes O, Blitzer A. Laryngopharyngeal dysfunction from the implant vagal nerve stimulator. Laryngoscope. 2003;113:221–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  313. Hatton KW, McLarney JT, Pittman T, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation: overview and implications for anesthesiologists. Anesth Analg. 2006;103:1241–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  314. Fahy BG. Intraoperative and perioperative complications with a vagus nerve stimulation device. J Clin Anesth. 2010;22:213–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  315. Horowitz G, Amit M, Fried I, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy: the surgical procedure and complications in 100 implantations by a single medical center. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;270:355–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  316. Murphy JV, for the Pediatric VNS Study group. Left vagal nerve stimulation in children with medically refractory epilepsy. J Pediatr. 1999;134:563–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  317. Charous SJ, Kempster G, Manders E, Ristanovic R. The effect of vagal nerve stimulation on Voice. Laryngoscope. 2001;111(11 Pt 1):2028–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  318. Kirse DJ, Werle AH, Murphy JV, Eyen TP, Bruegger DE, Hornig GW, Torkelson RD. Vagus nerve stimulator implantation in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2001;128:1263–8.

    Google Scholar 

  319. Asconape JJ, Moore DD, Zipes DP, Hartman LM, Duffell WH Jr. Bradycardia and asystole with the use of vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy: a rare complication of intraoperative device testing. Epilepsia. 1999;40:1452–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  320. Srinivasan B, Awasthi A. Transient atrial fibrillation after the implantation of a vagus nerve stimulator. Epilepsia. 2004;45:1645.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  321. Schlachter SC. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy. Five years after FDA approval. Neurology. 2002;59(Suppl 4):S15.

    Google Scholar 

  322. Ronkainen E, Korpelainen JT, Heikkinen E, Myllyla VV, Huikuri HV, Isojarvi JI. Cardiac autonomic control in patients with refractory epilepsy before and during vagus nerve stimulation treatment: a one-year follow-up study. Epilepsia. 2006;47:556–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  323. Lundy DS, Casiano RR, Landy HJ, Gallo J, Gallo B, Ramsey RE. Effects of vagal nerve stimulation on laryngeal function. J Voice. 1993;7:359–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  324. Kumar R, Winston KR, Folzenlogen Z. Removal of vagus nerve stimulator leads and reuse of same site for reimplantation: technique and experience. World Neurosurg. 2016;91:190–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  325. Agarwal G, Wilfong AA, Edmonds JL. Surgical revision of vagus nerve stimulation electrodes in children. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2011;144(1):123–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  326. Waseem H, Raffa SJ, Benbadis SR, et al. Lead revision surgery for vagus nerve stimulation in epilepsy: outcomes and efficacy. Epilepsy Behav. 2014;31:110–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  327. Ng WH, Donner E, Go C, et al. Revision of vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) electrodes: review and report on use of ultra-sharp monopolar tip. Childs Nerv Syst. 2010;26:1081–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  328. Fisher R, Salanova V, Witt T, Worth R, Henry T, Gross R, Oommen K, Osorio I, Nazzaro J, Labar D, Kaplitt M, Sperling M, Sandok E, Neal J, Handforth A, Stern J, De Salles A, Chung S, Shetter A, Bergen D, Bakay R, Henderson J, French J, Baltuch G, Rosenfeld W, Youkilis A, Marks W, Garcia P, Barbaro N, Fountain N, Bazil C, Goodman R, McKhann G, Babu Krishnamurthy K, Papavassiliou S, Epstein C, Pollard J, Tonder L, Grebin J, Coffey R, Graves N, SANTE Study Group. Electrical stimulation of the anterior nucleus of thalamus for treatment of refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2010;51(5):899–908.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  329. Kerrigan JF, Litt B, Fisher RS, Cranstoun S, French JA, Blum DE, Dichter M, Shetter A, Baltuch G, Jaggi J, Krone S, Brodie M, Rise M, Graves N. Electrical stimulation of the anterior nucleus of the thalamus for the treatment of intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2004;45:346–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  330. McGovern RA, Banks GP, McKhann GM II. New techniques and progress in epilepsy surgery. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-016-0661-6.

  331. Salanova V. Deep brain stimulation for epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.06041.

  332. Morrell MJ, Group RNSSiES. Responsive cortical stimulation for the treatment of medically intractable partial epilepsy. Neurology 2011;77:1295–1304.

    Google Scholar 

  333. Heck CN, King-Stephens D, Massey AD, et al. Two-year seizure reduction in adults with medically intractable partial onset epilepsy treated with responsive neurostimulation: final results of the RNS System Pivotal trial. Epilepsia. 2014;55:432–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.12534.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  334. Bergey GK, Morrell MJ, Mizrahi EM, et al. Long-term treatment with responsive brain stimulation in adults with refractory partial seizures. Neurology. 2015;84:810–7.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  335. Geller EB, Skarpaas TL, Gross RE, et al. Brain-responsive neurostimulation in patients with medically intractable mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2017;58:994–1004.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  336. Jobst BC, Kapur R, Barkley GL, et al. Brain-responsive neurostimulation in patients with medically intractable seizures arising from eloquent and other neocortical areas. Epilepsia. 2017;58:1005–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  337. Fountas KN, Smith JR, Murro AM, Politsky J, Park YD, Jenkins PD. Implantation of a closed-loop stimulation in the management of medically refractory focal epilepsy: a technical note. Stereotyct Funct Neurosurg. 2005;83:153–8.

    Google Scholar 

  338. Kameyama S, Shirozu H, Masuda H, Ito Y, Sonoda M, Akazawa K. MRI-guided stereotactic radiofrequency thermocoagulation for 100 hypothalamic hamartomas. J Neurosurg. 2016;124:1503–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  339. Vojtech Z, Malikova H, Kramska L, Anyz J, Syrucek M, Zamecnik J, et al. Long-term seizure outcome after stereotactic amygdalohippocampectomy. Acta Neurochir. 2014;156:1529–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-014-2126-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  340. Bourdillon P, Rheims S, Catenoix H, et al. Surgical techniques: Stereoelectroencephalography-guided radiofrequency thermocoagulation (SEEG-guided RF-TC). European Journal of Epilepsy. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2019.01.021.

  341. Bourdillon P, Isnard J, Catenoix H, Montavont A, Rheims S, Ryvlin P. Stereo-electroencephalography-guided radiofrequency Thermocoagulation (SEEG-guided RF-TC) in drug-resistant focal epilepsy: results from a 10-year experience. Epilepsia. 2017;58(1):85–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  342. Cossu M, Fuschillo D, Casaceli G, Pelliccia V, Castana L, Mai R. Stereoelectroencephalography-guided radiofrequency thermocoagulation in the epileptogenic zone: a retrospective study on 89 cases. J Neurosurg. 2015;123(6):1358–67.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  343. Guénot M, Isnard J, Ryvlin P, Fischer C, Mauguière F, Sindou M. SEEG-guided RF thermocoagulation of epileptic foci: feasibility, safety and preliminary results. Epilepsia. 2004;45:1368–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  344. Catenoix H, Mauguière F, Guénot M, Ryvlin P, Bissery A, Sindou M, et al. SEEG- guided thermocoagulations: a palliative treatment of nonoperable partial epilepsies. Neurology. 2008;71:1719–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  345. Malikova H, Kramska L, Vojtech Z, Sroubek J, Lukavsky J, Liscak R. Relationship between remnant hippocampus and amygdala and memory outcomes after stereotactic surgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2015;11:2927–33. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S95497.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  346. Curry DJ, Raskin J, Ali I, Wilfong AA. MR guided laser ablation for the treatment of hypothalamic hamartomas. Epilepsy Res. 2018;142:131–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  347. Harvey AS, Freeman JL, Berkovic SF, Rosenfeld JV. Transcallosal re-sectionof hypothalamic hamartomas in patients with intractable epilepsy. Epileptic Disord. 2003;5:257–65.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  348. Ng YT, Rekate HL, Prenger EC, Wang NC, Chung SS, Feiz-Erfan I, Johnsonbaugh RE, Varland MR, Kerrigan JF. Endoscopic resection of hypothalamic hamartomas for refractory symptomatic epilepsy. Neurology. 2008;70(17):1543–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  349. Xu DS, Chen T, Hlubek RJ, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy for the treatment of hypothalamic hamartomas: a retrospective review. Neurosurgery. 2018;83:1183–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  350. Drane DL, Loring DW, Voets NL, Price M, Ojemann JG, Willie JT, et al. Better object recognition and naming outcome with MRI-guided stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampotomy for temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2015;56:101–113.

    Google Scholar 

  351. Donos C, Breier J, Friedman E, et al. Laser ablation for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: surgical and cognitive outcomes with and without mesial temporal sclerosis. Epilepsia. 2018;59:1421–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  352. Jermakowicz WJ, Kanner AM, Sur S, Bermudez C, D’Haese PF, Kolcun JP, et al. Laser thermal ablation for mesiotemporal epilepsy: analysis of ablation volumes and trajectories. Epilepsia. 2017;58(5):801–10.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  353. Kang JY, Wu C, Tracy J, Lorenzo M, Evans J, Nei M, et al. Laser interstitial thermal therapy for medically intractable mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2016;57:325–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  354. Gross R. The latest on lasers: improving the outcome of MRg-LITT amygdalohippocampectomy. Epilepsy Curr. 2018;18(6):382–6.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  355. Wu C, Jermakovicz WJ, Chakravorti S, et al. Effects of surgical targeting in laser interstitial thermal therapy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: A multicenter study of 234 patients. Epilepsia. 2019;60(6):1171–83.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  356. Grewal SS, Alvi MA, Lu VM, et al. Magnetic resonance-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy versus stereotactic radiosurgery for medically intractable temporal lobe epilepsy: A systematic review and meta-analysis of seizure outcomes and complications. World Neurosurg. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2018.08.227.

  357. Hoppe C, Witt J-A, Helmstaedter C, et al. Laser interstitial thermotherapy (LiTT) in epilepsy surgery. Seizure. 2017;48:45–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  358. Hoppe C, Helmstaedter C. Laser interstitial thermotherapy (LiTT) in pediatric epilepsy surgery. Seizure. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.

  359. Patel P, Patel NV, Danish SF. Intracranial MR-guided laser-induced thermal therapy: single-center experience with the Visualase thermal therapy system. J Neurosurg. 2016;125:853–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  360. Devine IM, Burrell CJ, Shih JJ. Curative laser thermoablation of epilepsy secondary to bottom-of-sulcus dysplasia near eloquent cortex. Seizure. 2016;34:35–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  361. McCracken DJ, Willie J, Fernald BA, Saindane AM, Drane DL, Barrow DL, et al. Magnetic resonance thermometry-guided stereotactic laser ablation of cavernous malformations in drug-resistant epilepsy: imaging and clinical results. Oper Neurosurg. 2016;12:39–48.

    Google Scholar 

  362. Hawasli AH, Bandt SK, Hogan RE, Werner N, Leuthardt EC. Laser ablation as treatment strategy for medically refractory dominant insular epilepsy: therapeutic and functional considerations. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2014;92:397–404.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  363. Cobourn K, Fayed I, Keating RF, Oluigbo CO. Early outcomes of stereoelectroencephalography followed by MR-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy: a paradigm for minimally invasive epilepsy surgery. Neurosurg Focus. 2018;45:1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  364. Lewis EC, Weil AG, Duchowny M, Bhatia S, Ragheb J, Miller I. MR-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy for pediatric drug-resistant lesional epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2015;56:1590–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  365. Buckley RT, Wang AC, Miller JW, Novotny EJ, Ojemann JG. Stereotactic laser ablation for hypothalamic and deep intraventricular lesions. Neurosurg Focus. 2016;41:E10. https://doi.org/10.3171/2016.7.FOCUS16236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  366. Pruitt R, Gamble A, Black K, Schulder M, Mehta AD. Complication avoidance in laser interstitial thermal therapy: lessons learned. J Neurosurg. 2017;126(4):1238–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  367. Hawasli AH, Bagade S, Shimony JS, Miller-Thomas M, Leuthardt EC. Magnetic resonance imaging-guided focused laser interstitial thermal therapy for intracranial lesions: single-institution series. Neurosurgery. 2013;73:1007–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  368. Atsina KB, Sharan AD, Wu C, Evans JJ, Sperling MR, Skidmore CT, et al. Longitudinal qualitative characterization of MRI features after laser interstitial thermal therapy in drug-resistant epilepsy. AJR. 2016:1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  369. Curry DJ, Gowda A, McNichols RJ, Wilfong AA. MR-guided stereotactic laser ablation of epileptogenic foci in children. Epilepsy Behav. 2012;24:408–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  370. Régis J, Lagmari M, Carron R, et al. Safety and efficacy of gamma knife radiosurgery in hypothalamic hamartomas with severe epilepsies: a prospective trial in 48 patients and review of the literature. Epilepsia. 2017;58:60–71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  371. Wagner K, Buschmann F, Zentner J, et al. Memory outcome one year after stereotactic interstitial radiosurgery in patients with epilepsy due to hypothalamic hamartomas. Epilepsy Behav. 2014;37:204–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  372. Hensley-Judge H, Quigg M, Barbaro NM, Newman SA, Ward MM, Chang EF, et al. Visual field defects after radiosurgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2013;54:1376–80.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  373. Quigg M, Broshek DK, Barbaro NM, Ward MM, Laxer KD, Yan G, et al. Neuropsychological outcomes after gamma knife radiosurgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: a prospective multicenter study. Epilepsia. 2011;52:909–16.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  374. Régis J, Rey M, Bartolomei F, et al. Gamma knife surgery in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: a prospective multicenter study. Epilepsia. 2004;45:504–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  375. Barbaro NM, Quigg M, Broshek DK, et al. A multicenter, prospective pilot study of gamma knife radiosurgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: seizure response, adverse events, and verbal memory. Ann Neurol. 2009;65:167–75. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.21558.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  376. Liang S, Li A, Jiang H, Meng X, Zhao M, Zhang J, Sun Y. Anterior corpus callosotomy in patients with intractable generalized epilepsy and mental retardation. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2010;88:246–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  377. Barbaro NM, Quigg M, Ward MW, et al. Radiosurgery versus open surgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: the randomized, controlled ROSE trial. Epilepsia. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.14045.

  378. Régis J, Bartolomei F, Hayashi M, Chauvel P. Gamma knife surgery, a neuromodulation therapy in epilepsy surgery! Acta Neurochir. 2002;84(Suppl):37–47.

    Google Scholar 

  379. Regis J, Peragut J, Rey M, et al. First selective amygdalohippocampic radiosurgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1994;64:191–201.

    Google Scholar 

  380. Regis J, Semah F, Bryan R, Levrier O, Rey M, Samson Y, Peragut J. Early and delayed MR and PET changes after selective temporomesial radiosurgery in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. AJNR. 1999;20:213–6.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  381. Chang EF, Quigg M, Oh MC, Dillon WP, Ward MM, Laxer KD, Broshek DK, Barbaro NM. Predictors of efficacy after stereotactic radiosurgery for medial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2010;74:165–72. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c9185d.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  382. Vojtech Z, Malíková H, Krámská L, Liščák R, Vladyka V. MRI-guided stereotactic amygdalohippocampectomy: a single center experience. Neuropsychiatr DisTreat. 2015;11:359–74.

    Google Scholar 

  383. Usami K, Kawai K, Koga T, et al. Delayed complication after gamma knife surgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurosurg. 2012;116(6):1221–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  384. Rheims S, Didelot A, Guenot M, Regis J, Ryvlin P. Subcontinuous epileptiform activity after failed hippocampal radiosurgery. Epilepsia. 2011;52:1425–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  385. McGonigal A, Sahgal A, De Salles A, et al. Radiosurgery for epilepsy: systematic review and International Stereotactic Radiosurgery Society (ISRS) practice guideline. Epilepsy Res. 2017;137:123–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  386. McGonigal A, Micoulaud-Franchi JA. Screening for anxiety and depression in epilepsy. Can J Neurol Sci. 2018;45(4):481–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  387. Ganz JC. Gamma knife radiosurgery and its possible relationship to malignancy: a review. J Neurosurg. 2002;97(5 Suppl):644–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  388. Starke RM, Yen CP, Chen CJ, Ding D, Mohila CA, Jensen ME, et al. An updated assessment of the risk of radiation-induced neoplasia after radiosurgery of arteriovenous malformations. World Neurosurg. 2014;82:395–401.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden-Württemberg, Germany

    Josef Zentner

Authors
  1. Josef Zentner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Zentner, J. (2020). Complications. In: Surgical Treatment of Epilepsies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48748-5_15

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation