Abstract
Non-resective surgical strategies provide an alternative for drug-resistant patients not amenable to resective surgery due to poorly localized seizure foci, multiple foci, or epileptogenic zones co-localizing with eloquent areas carrying high risks for a resective procedure. They will not replace resective surgery, but rather complement the spectrum of surgical options. Palliative approaches comprising disconnective procedures (corpus callosotomy, CC; multiple subpial transections, MST) and neurostimulation (vagal nerve stimulation, VNS; deep brain stimulation, DBS; responsive neurostimulation, RNS) aim at reducing frequency and severity of most disabling seizures. The goal of curative non-resective surgery including ablative procedures (radiofrequency thermocoagulation, RFTC; laser-induced thermotherapy, LITT) and stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) is to achieve complete seizure freedom as with resection. CC has been shown to reduce or abolish severe tonic or atonic drop attacks in around 90% of patients. As a stand-alone therapy, results of MST are modest with responder rates (defined as ≥50% decrease in seizure frequency) between 40% and 50%, and seizure-free outcome in 10–15% of patients. More favorable results with seizure control between 40% and 60% and responder rates between 80% and 90% can be achieved when MST are combined with resection. Neurostimulation procedures provide responder rates between 50% and 70%. Long-term assessment demonstrates continuously improving efficacy over many years suggesting a disease-modifying neuromodulation effect. With curative procedures, seizure-free outcome is achieved in 30–60% of patients. Curative stereotactic approaches can be expected to become first-line treatment options for selected patients with circumscribed lesions such as hypothalamic hamartomas, periventricular nodular heterotopias, and deep-seated focal cortical dysplasias. In addition, LITT may be considered as a minimally invasive alternative to resective surgery for mesiotemporal lobe epilepsies.
If you want new ideas, read old books
I. Pavlov
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Chang EF, Englot DJ, Vadera S. Minimally invasive surgical approaches for temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;47:24–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.04.033.
Englot DJ, Chang EF. Rates and predictors of seizure freedom in resective epilepsy surgery: an update. Neurosurg Rev. 2014;37:389–404; discussion 404–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10143-014-0527-9.
Englot DJ, Birk H, Chang EF. Seizure outcomes in nonresective epilepsy surgery: an update. Neurosurg Rev. 2016;40:181–92.
Englot DJ, Rolston JD, Wright CW, Hassnain KH, Chang EF. Rates and predictors of seizure freedom with vagus nerve stimulation for intractable epilepsy. Neurosurgery. 2016;79(3):345–53. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000001165.
Englot DJ, Konrad PE, Morgan VL. Regional and global connectivity disturbances in focal epilepsy, related neurocognitive sequelae, and potential mechanistic underpinnings. Epilepsia. 2016;57:1546–57.
Dandy WE. Operative experiences in cases of pineal tumors. Arch Surg. 1936;33:19–46.
Van Wagenen WP, Herren RY. Surgical division of commisural pathways in the corpus callosum: relation to spread of an epileptic attack. Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1940;44:740–59.
Akelaitis AJE. A study of gnosis/praxis and language following section of the corpus callosum and anterior commissure. J Neurosurg. 1944;1:94–102.
Goldstein MN, Joynt RJ, Hartley RB. The long-term effects of callosal sectioning. Ann Neurol. 1975;32:52–3.
Sperry RW. Cerebral organization and behavior. Science. 1961;133:1749–57.
Blume WT. Corpus callosum section for seizure control: rational and review of experimental and clinical data. Cleve Clin Q. 1984;51:319–22.
Blume WT. Corrpus callosotomy: a critical review. In: Tuxhorn I, Holthausen H, Boenigk H, editors. Paediatric epilepsy syndromes and their surgical treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997. p. 815–29.
Bancaud J, Talairach J, Bonis A, Schaub D, Szikla G, Morel P, Bordas-Ferer M. La stereo-encephalographie dans lépilepsie. Paris: Masson; 1965.
Goldring S. The role of prefrontal cortex in grand mal convulsion. Arch Neurol. 1972;26:109–19.
Collins RC, Kennedy C, Sokoloff L, Plum F. Metabolic anatomy of focal motor seizures. Arch Neurol. 1976;33:536–42.
Engel J, Wolfson L, Brown L. Anatomical correlates of electrical and behavioral events related to amygdaloid kindling. Ann Neurol. 1978;3:538–44.
Fischer RS, Prince DA. Spike-wave rhythms in cat cortex induced by parenteral penicillin. Electroencephalographic features. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1977;42:608–24.
Gloor P, Avoli M, Kostopoulos G. Thalamocortical relationships in generalized epilepsy with bilaterally synchronous spike-and-wave discharge. In: Avoli M, Gloor P, Kostopoulos G, Naquet R, editors. Generalized epilepsy, neurobiological approaches. Boston, MA: Birkhauser; 1990. p. 190–212.
Schwarzkroin PA, Mutani R, Prince DA. Orthodromic and antidromic effects of a cortical epileptoform focus on ventro-lateral nucleus of the cat. J Neurophysiol. 1975;38:795–811.
Aicardi J, Chevri JJ. Myoclonic epilepsies of childhood. Neuropaediatrie. 1971;3:177–90.
Blume WT, David RB, Gomez MR. Generalized sharp and slow wave complexes. Associated clinical features and long-term follow-up. Brain. 1973;96:289–306.
Gastaut H, Roger J, Soulayrol CA, Tassinari CA, Dravet C. Childhood epileptic encephalopathy with diffuse slow spike-waves (otherwise known as petit mal variant) or Lennox syndrome. Epilepsia. 1966;7:139–79.
Gloor P, Quesney LF, Zumstein H. Pathophysiology of generalized penicillin epilepsy in the cat: the role of cortical and subcortical structures. II. Topical application of penicillin to the cerebral cortex and to subcortical structures. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1977;43:73–94.
Markand ON. Slow spike-wave activity in EEG and associated clinical features: often called Lennox or Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Neurology. 1977;27:746–57.
Curtis HJ, Bard P. Intercortical connexions of the corpus callosum as indicated by evoked potentials. Am J Physiol. 1939;126:473.
Erickson TC. Spread of the epileptic discharge. An experimental study of the afterdischarge induced by electrical stimulation of cerebral cortex. Arch Neurol Psychiat. 1940;43:429–5.
Kopeleff N, Kennard MA, Pacella BL, Kopeleff LM, Chusid JG. Section of corpus callosum in experimental epilepsy in the monkey. Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1950;63:719–27.
Marcus EM, Watson CW. Symmetrical epileptogenic foci in monkey cerebral cortex: mechanisms of interactions and regional variations in capacity for synchronous discharges. Arch Neurol. 1968;19:99–116.
Musgrave J, Gloor P. The role of corpus callosum in bilateral interhemispheric synchrony of spike and wave discharge in feline generalized penicillin epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1980;21:369–78.
Crowell RM, Marsan C. Topographical distribution and patterns of unit activity during electrically induced after-discharge. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1972;31:59–73.
Schwarzkroin PA, Futamach KJ, Noebbels IL, Prince DA. Transcallosal effects of a cortical epileptiform focus. Brain Res. 1975;99:59–68.
Spencer SS, Spencer DD, Glaser GH. More intensive focal seizure types after callosal section: the role of inhibition. Ann Neurol. 1984;16:686–93.
Spiegel E. The central mechanism of generalized epileptic fits. Am J Psychiatry. 1931;88:595–609.
Spencer SS, Spencer DD, Sass KJ, Novelly RA, Williamson PD, Mattson RH. Partial vs. total callosotomy for epilepsy. Adv Epileptol. 1987;16:323–5.
Spencer SS, Gates JR, Reeves AG, Spencer DD, Maxwell RE, Roberts D. Corpus callosum section. In: Engel J, editor. Surgical treatment of the epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1987. p. 425–44.
Kusske JA, Rush JL. Corpus callosum and propagation of afterdischarge to contralateral cortex and thalamus. Neurology. 1978;28:905–12.
Ottino CA, Meglio M, Rossi GF, Tercero E. An experimental study of the structure mediating bilateral synchrony of epileptic discharges of cortical origin. Epilepsia. 1971;12:299–311.
Stavkry GW. Supersensitivity following lesions of the nervous system. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; 1961. p. 33–8.
Wada JA, Komai S. Effect of anterior two-thirds callosal bisection upon bisymmetrical and bisynchronous generalized convulsions kindled from amygdala in epileptic baboon. In: Reeves AG, editor. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. New York: Plenum Press; 1985. p. 75–97.
Bogen J. Cerebral commissurotomy. A second case report. JAMA. 1965;194:1328–9.
Bogen J, Vogel PJ. Cerebral commisurotomy in man: preliminary case report. Bull Los Angeles Neurol Soc. 1962;27:139–72.
Bogen JE, Sperry RW, Vogel PJ. Commisural section and propagation of seizures. In: Jasper HH, Ward AA, Pope A, editors. Basic mechanisms or the epilepsies. Boston, MA: Little Brown; 1969. p. 439–40.
Wilson DH, Culver C, Waddington M, Gazzaniga M. Disconnection of the cerebral hemisphere. An alternative to hemispherectomy for the control of intractable seizures. Neurology. 1975;25:1149–53.
Wilson DH, Reeves A, Gazzaniga M, Culver C. Cerebral commissurotomy for control of intractable seizures. Neurology. 1977;27:708–15.
Wilson DH, Reeves A, Gazzaniga M. Division of the corpus callosum for uncontrollable epilepsy. Neurology. 1978;28:649–53.
Wilson DH, Reeves A, Gazzaniga M. “Central” commissurotomy for intractable generalized epilepsy: series two. Neurology. 1982;32:687–97.
Luessenhop AJ, dela Cruz TC, Fenichel GM. Surgical disconnection of the cerebral hemispheres for intractable seizures: results in infancy and childhood. JAMA. 1970;213:1630–6.
Reeves AG. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. New York: Plenum Press; 1985.
Reeves AG, Roberts DW. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. 2nd ed. New York: Plenum Press; 1995.
Gates JR. Corpus callosum candidacy. In: Lüders H, editor. Epilepsy surgery. New York: Raven Press; 1992. p. 119–25.
Purves SJ, Wada JA, Woodhurst WB. Corpus callosum section for complex partial seizures. In: Reeves AG, Roberts DW, editors. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. 2nd ed. New York: Plenum Press; 1995. p. 175–82.
Engel J. Outcome with respect to epileptic seizures. In: Engel J, editor. Surgical treatment of the epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1987. p. 553–71.
Apuzzo MLJ. Surgery of the third ventricle. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1987.
Apuzzo MLJ, Chikovani OK, Gott PS. Transcallosal, interfornical approaches for lesions affecting the third ventricle: surgical considerations and consequences. Neurosurgery. 1982;10:547–54.
Bogen JE. Some historical aspects of callosotomy for epilepsy. In: Reeves G, Roberts DW, editors. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. 2nd ed. New York: Plenum Press; 1995. p. 107–21.
Reutens DC, Bye AM, Hopkins IL, Danks A, Sommerville E, Walsh J, Bleasel A, Ouvrier R, MacKenzie RA, Manson JL, Bladin PF, Berkovic SF. Corpus callosotomy for intractable epilepsy: seizure outcome and prognostic factors. Epilepsia. 1993;34:904–9.
Wyler AR. Corpus callosotomy. In: Wyllie E, editor. The treatment of epilepsy: principles and practice. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1997. p. 1097–102.
Fuiks KW, Wyler AR, Hermann BP, Sorres G. Seizure outcome from anterior and complete corpus callosotomy. J Neurosurg. 1991;74:573–8.
Gates JR, Maxwell R, Leppik IE, Gumnit RJ. Electroencephalographic and clinical effects of total corpus callosotomy. In: Reeves AG, editor. Epilepsia and the corpus callosum. New York: Plenum Press; 1985. p. 315–28.
Geoffroy G, Lassonde M, Delisle F, Decarie M. Corpus callosotomy for control of intractable epilepsy in children. Neurology. 1983;33:891–7.
Girvin JP. Operative techniques in epilepsy. Cham: Springer; 2015.
Kim DS, Yang KH, Kim TG, Chang JH, Chang JW, Choi JU, Lee BI. The surgical effect of callosotomy in the treatment of intractable seizures. Yonsei Med J. 2004;45:233–40.
Liang S, Li A, Jiang H, Meng X, Zhao M, Zhang J, Sun Y. Anterior corpus callosotomy in patients with intractable generaliszed epilepsy and mental retardation. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2010;88:246–52.
Purves SJ, Wada JA, Woodhurst WB, Moyes PD, Strauss E, Kosaka B, Li D. Results of anterior corpus callosum section in 24 patients with medically intractable seizures. Neurology. 1988;38:1194–201.
Spencer SS, Spencer DD, Williamson PD, Sass K, Novelly RA, Mattson RH. Corpus callosotomy for epilepsy. I. Seizure effects. Neurology. 1988;38:19–24.
Roberts DW, Reeves AG, Nordgren RE. The role of posterior callosotomy in patients with suboptimal response to anterior callosotomy. In: Reeves AG, Roberts DW, editors. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. 2nd ed. New York: Plenum Press; 1995. p. 183–90.
Madsen JR, Carmant L, Holmes GL, Black PM. Corpus callosotomy in children. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 1995;6(3):541–8.
Oguni H, Olivier A, Andermann F, Comair J. Anterior callosotomy in the treatment of medically intractable epilepsies: a study of 43 patients with a mean follow-up of 39 months. Ann Neurol. 1991;30(3):357–64.
Williamson PD. Corpus callosum section for intractable epilepsy. In: Reeves AG, editor. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. New York: Plenum Press; 1985. p. 243–57.
Cukiert A, Burattini JA, Mariani PP, Câmara RB, Seda L, Baldauf CM, Argentoni M, Baise-Zung C, Forster CR, Mello VA. Extended, one-stage callosal section for treatment of refractory secondarily generalized epilepsy in patients with Lennox-Gastaut and Lennox-like syndromes. Epilepsia. 2006;47:371–4.
Cukiert A, Burattini JA, Mariani PP, Cukiert CM, Sárgentoni-Baldochi M, Baise-Zung C, Fortser CR, Mello VA. Outcome after extended callosal section in patients with primary idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2009;50(6):1377–80.
Gates JR, Leppik IE, Yap J, Gumnit RJ. Corpus callosotomy: clinical end electroencephalographic effects. Epilepsia. 1984;25:308–16.
Gates JR, Mireles R, Maxwell R, Sharbrough F, Forbes G. Nuclear magnetic resonance scan documentation of the extent of callosotomy. Epilepsia. 1984;25:650–1.
Hanson RR, Risinger M, Maxwell R. The ictal EEG as a predictive factor for outcome following corpus callosum section in adults. Epilepsy Res. 2002;49:89–97.
Maehara T, Shimizu H. Surgical outcome of corpus callosotomy in patients with drop attacks. Epilepsia. 2001;42:67–71.
Maehara T, Shimizu H, Oda M, Arai N. Surgical treatment of children with intractable epilepsy. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 1996;36:306–9.
Mamelak AN, Barbaro NM, Walker JA, Laxer KD. Corpus callosotomy a quantitative study of extent of resection, seizure control, and neuropsychological outcome. J Neurosurg. 1993;79:688–95.
Sunaga S, Shimizu H, Sugano H. Long-term follow-up of seizure outcomes after corpus callosotomy. Seizure. 2009;18:124–8.
Tanriverdi T, Olivier A, Poulin N, Andermann F, Dubeau F. Long-term seizure outcome after corpus callosotomy: a retrospective analysis of 95 patients. J Neurosurg. 2009;110:332–42.
Jenssen S, Sperling MR, Tracy JI, Nei M, Joyce L, David G, O’Connor M. Corpus callosotomy in refractory idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Seizure. 2006;15:621–9.
Kwan SY, Lin JH, Wong TT, Chang KP, Yiu CH. A comparison of seizure outcome after callosotomy in patients with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and positive or negative history of West syndrome. Seizure. 2006;15:552–7.
Pinard JM, Delalande O, Chiron C, Soufflet C, Plouin P, Kim Y, Dulac O. Callosotomy for epilepsy after West syndrome. Epilepsia. 1999;40:1727–34.
Wheless JW. Managing severe epilepsy syndromes of early childhood. J Child Neurol. 2009;24:24S–32S.
Gates JR, Rosenfeld WE, Maxwell RE. Response of multiple seizure types to corpus callosum section. Epilepsia. 1987;28:28–34.
Gates JR, Rosenfield WE, Maxwell RE, et al. Response of multiple seizure types to corpus callosum section. Epilepsia. 1987;28:28–38.
Sass KJ, Novelly RA, Spencer DD, Spencer SS. Postcallosotomy language impairments in patients with crossed cerebral dominance. J Neurosurg. 1990;72:85–90.
Englot DJ. A modern epilepsy surgery treatment algorithm: Incorporating traditional and emerging technologies. Epilepsy Behav. 2018;80:68–74.
Maxwell RE, Gates JR, Gumnit RJ. Corpus callosotomy at the University of Minnesota. In: Engel Jr J, editor. Surgical treatment of epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1986. p. 659–66.
Risse GL. Interhemispheric transfer in patients with incomplete section of the corpus callosum. Arch Neurol. 1989;46:437–43.
Roberts DW, Rayport M, Maxwell RE, Olivier A, Marino R. Corpus callosotomy. In: Engel J, editor. Surgical treatment of the epilepsies. New York: Raven Press; 1993. p. 519–26.
Villemure JG, Vernet O, Delalande O. Hemispheric disconnection: callsosotomy and hemispherectomy. Adv Tech Stand Neurosurg. 2000;26:25–78.
Yasargil MG. Microneurosurgery. Stuttgart, NY: Thieme; 1994.
Lang J, Ederer M. Über Form und Größe des Corpus Callosum und des Septum Pellucidum. Morph Jb (Leipzig). 1980;126:949–58.
Zentner J. Surgical aspects of corpus callosum section. In: Tuxhorn I, Holthausen H, Boenigk H, editors. Paediatric epilepsy syndromes and their surgical treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997. p. 830–49.
Seeger W, Zentner J. Neuronaviagation and neuroanatomy. Wien: Springer; 2002. p. 172–3.
Wyler AR. Corpus callosotomy in the treatment of epilepsy. Contemp Neurosurg. 1990;12:1–5.
Sood S, Marupudi NI, Asano E, Haridas A, Ham SD. Endoscopic corpus callosotomy and hemispherotomy. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2015;16(6):681–6.
Luat AF, Asano E, Kumar A, et al. Corpus callosotomy for intractable epilepsy revisited: the Children’s Hospital of Michigan Series. J Child Neurol. 2017;32(7):624–9.
Smyth MD, Vellimana AK, Asano E, et al. Corpus callosotomy—open and endoscopic surgical techniques. Epilepsia. 2017;58:73–9.
Avila JO, Radvany J, Huck FR, Pires de Camargo CH, Marino R, Ragazzo PC, Riva D. Anterior callosotomy as a substitute for hemispherectomy. Acta Neurochir. 1980;30:137–43.
Huck FR, Radvany J, Avila JO, Pires de Camargo CH, Marino R, Ragazzo PC, Riva D, Arlant P. Anterior callosotomy in epileptics with multiform seizures and bilateral synchronous spike and wave EEG pattern. Acta Neurochir. 1980;30:127–35.
Marino R, Ragazzo PC. Selection criteria and results of selective partial callosotomy. In: Reeves AG, editor. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. New York: Plenum Press; 1985. p. 281–301.
Marino R, Radvany J, Huck F, de Camargo CHP, Gronich G. Selective EEG-guided microsurgical callosotomy for refractory generalized epilepsy. Surg Neurol. 1990;34:219–28.
Widjaja E, Zarei Mahmoodabadi S, Otsubo H, Snead OC, Holowka S, Bells S, Raybaud C. Subcortical alterations in tissue microstructure adjacent to focal cortical dysplasia: detection at diffusion-tensor MR imaging by using magnetoencephalographic dipole cluster localization. Radiology. 2009;251:206–15.
Raffelt D, Tournier JD, Rose S, et al. Apparent fibre density: a novel measure for the analysis of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance images. Neuroimage. 2012;59(4):3976–94.
Bodaghabadi M, Bitaraf MA, Aran S, Alikhani M, Ashrafian H, Zahiri A, Alahverdi M. Corpus callosotomy with gamma knife radiosurgery for a case of intractable generalised epilepsy. Epileptic Disord. 2011;13:202–8.
Eder HG, Feichtinger M, Pieper T, Kurschel S, Schroettener O. Gamma knife radiosurgery for callosotomy in children with drug-resistant epilepsy. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22:1012–7.
Feichtinger M, Schröttner O, Eder H, Holthausen H, Pieper T, Unger F, Holl A, Gruber L, Körner E, Trinka E, Fazekas F, Ott E. Efficacy and safety of radiosurgical callosotomy: a retrospective analysis. Epilepsia. 2006;47:1184–91.
Pendl G, Eder HG, Schroettner O, Leber KA. Corpus callosotomy with radiosurgery. Neurosurgery. 1999;45(2):303–7.
Smyth MD, Klein EE, Dodson WE, Mansur DB. Radiosurgical posterior corpus callosotomy in a child with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Case report. J Neurosurg. 2007;106(4 Suppl):312–5.
McGonigal A, Sahgal A, De Salles A, et al. Radiosurgery for epilepsy: systematic review and International Stereotactic Radiosurgery Society (ISRS) practice guideline. Epilepsy Res. 2017;137:123–31.
Moreno-Jimenez S, San-Juan D, Larraga-Gutierrez JM, Celis MA, Alonso-Vanegas MA, Anschel DJ. Diffusion tensor imaging in radiosurgical callosotomy. Seizure. 2012;21:473–7.
Marino R, Gronich G. Corpus callosum stimulation and stereotactic callosotomy in the management of refractory generalized seizures. Arq Neuro-Psiquiat (Sao Paulo). 1989;47:320–5.
Marino R, Cukiert A, Gronich G. Open and stereotactic segmental callosotomy: effects on seizure frequency. In: Reeves AG, Roberts DW, editors. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. 2nd ed. New York: Plenum Press; 1995. p. 209–15.
Ball T, Sharma M, White A, et al. Anterior corpus callosotomy using laser interstitial thermal therapy for refractory epilepsy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1159/000495414.
Ho AL, Miller KJ, Cartmell S, Inoyama K, Fisher RS, Halpern CH. Stereotactic laser ablation of the splenium for intractable epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav Case Rep. 2016;5:23–6.
Karsy M, Patel DM, Halvorson K, Mortimer V, Bollo RJ. Anterior two-thirds corpus callosotomy via stereotactic laser ablation. Neurosurg Focus. 2018;44(Video Suppl 2):V2.
Pruitt R, Gamble A, Black K, Schulder M, Mehta AD. Complication avoidance in laser interstitial thermal therapy: lessons learned. J Neurosurg. 2017;126(4):1238–45.
Tao JX, Satzer D, Issa NP, et al. Stereotactic laser anterior corpus callosotomy for Lennox‐Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.16535.
Jea A, Vachhrajani S, Johnson KK, Rutka JT. Corpus callosotomy in children with intractable epilepsy using frameless stereotactic neuronavigation: 12-year experience et the Hospital for sick children in Toronto. Neurosurg Focus. 2008;25:E7.
Jea A, Vachhrajani S, Widjaja E, Nilsson D, Raybaud C, Shroff M, Rutka JT. Corpus callosotomy in children and the disconnection syndromes: a review. Childs Nerv Syst. 2008;24:685–92.
Téllez-Zenteno JF, Dhar R, Wiebe S. Long-term seizure outcomes following epilepsy surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain. 2005;128:1188–98. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awh449.
Turanli G, Yalnizoglu D, Genc-Acikgoz D, Akalan N, Topcu M. Outcome and longterm follow-up after corpus callosotomy in childhood onset intractable epilepsy. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22:1322–7.
Berg AT, Vickrey BG. Outcome measures. In: Engel J, Pedley TA, editors. Epilepsy: a comprehensive textbook. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers; 1998. p. 1891–9.
Shimizu H. Our experience with pediatric epilepsy surgery focusing on corpus callosotomy and hemispherectomy. Epilepsia. 2005;46(Suppl. 1):30–1.
Fauser S, Zentner J. Critical review of palliative surgical techniques for intractable epilepsy. In: Advances and technical standards in neurosurgery. Wien: Springer; 2013.
Cendes F, Ragazzo PC, da Costa V, Martins LF. Corpus callosotomy in treatment of medically resistant epilepsy: preliminary results in a pediatric population. Epilepsia. 1993;34(5):910–7.
Gilliam F, Wyllie E. Functional outcome of children following corpus callosum section. In: Tuxhorn I, Holthausen H, Boenigk H, editors. Paediatric epilepsy syndromes and their surgical treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997. p. 850–3.
Passamonti C, Zamponi N, Foschi N, Trignani R, Luzi M, Cesaroni E, Provinciali L, Scerrati M. Long-term seizure and behavioral outcomes after corpus callosotomy. Epilepsy Behav. 2014;41:23–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2014.08.130.
Graham D, Tisdall MM, Gill D. Corpus callosotomy outcomes in pediatric patients: a systematic review. Epilepsia. 2016;57(7):1053–68.
Jalilian L, Limbrick DD, Steger-May K, Johnston J, Powers AK, Smyth MD. Complete versus anterior two-third corpus callosotomy in children. Analysis of outcome. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2010;6:257–66.
Rahimi SY, Park YD, Witcher MR, Lee KH, Marrufo M, Lee MR. Corpus callosotomy for treatment of pediatric epilepsy in the modern era. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2007;43:202–8.
Wong TT, Kwan SY, Chang KP, Hsiu-Mei W, Yang TF, Chen YS, Yi-Yen L. Corpus callosotomy in children. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22:999–1011.
Rathore C, Abraham M, Rao RM, George A, Sankara Sarma P, Radhakrishnan K. Outcome after corpus callosotomy in children with injurious drop attacks and severe mental retardation. Brain Dev. 2007;29:577–85.
Asadi-Pooya AA, Sharan A, Nei M, Sperling MR. Corpus callosotomy. Epilepsy Behav. 2008;13:271–8.
Ross MK, Reeves AG, Roberts DW. Post-commissurotomy mutism. Ann Neurol. 1984;16:114.
Provinciali L, Quattrini A, Papo I, del Pesce M, Mancini S. Neuropsychological changes after callosotomy in drug-resistant epilepsy: a study of the short-term evaluation. Acta Neurochir. 1988;94:15–22.
Roberts DW. Corpus callosotomy. In: Reeves AG, editor. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. New York: Plenum Press; 1985. p. 259–67.
Pilcher WH, Ojemann GA. Complications of epilepsy surgery. In: Post KD, Friedman E, McCormick P, editors. Postoperative complications in intracranial neurosurgery. Stuttgart: Thieme; 1993. p. 157–65.
Ferguson SM, Rayport M, Corrie WS. Neuropsychiatric observations on behavioral consequences of corpus callosum section for seizure control. In: Reeves AR, editor. Epilepsy and the corpus callosum. New York: Plenum Press; 1985. p. 501–14.
Levin HS, Mattson AJ, Levander M, et al. Effects of transcallosal surgery on interhemispheric transfer of information. Surg Neurol. 1993;40:65–74.
Makari G, Holmes G, Murro A. Corpus callosotomy for the treatment of intractable epilepsy in children. J Epilepsy. 1989;2:1–7.
Bogen JE. Physiological consequences of complete and partial commissural section. In: Apuzzo MLJ, editor. Surgery of the third ventricle. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1987. p. 175–94.
Gordon HW, Bogen JE, Sperry RW. Absence of deconnexion syndrome in two patients with partial section of the neocommissures. Brain. 1971;94:327–36.
Jeeves MA, Simpson DA, Geffen G. Functional consequences of the transcallosal removal of intraventricular tumours. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat. 1979;42:134–42.
Shucart WA, Stein BM. Transcallosal approach to the anterior ventricular system. Neurosurgery. 1978;3:339–43.
Winston KR, Cavazzuti V, Arkins T. Absence of neurological and behavioral abnormalities after anterior transcallosal operation for third ventricle lesions. Neurosurgery. 1979;4:386–93.
Reeves AG, Risse G. Neurological effects of callosotomy. In: Reeves AG, Roberts DW, editors. Epilepsy and the corpus callosoum 2. Advances in behavioral biology, vol. 45. New York: Plenum; 1995. p. 241–51.
Nakasu Y, Isozumi T, Nioka H, Handa J. Mechanism of mutism following transcallosal approach to the ventricles. Acta Neurochir. 1991;110:146–53.
Spencer SS. Corpus callosum section and other disconnection procedures for medically intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1988;29:85–99.
Sass KJ, Spencer DD, Spencer SS, Novelly RA, Williamson PD, Mattson RH. Corpus callosotomy for epilepsy. II. Neurological and neuropsychological outcome. Neurology. 1988;38:24–8.
Geschwind DH, Jacobini M, Mega MS, Zaidel DW, Cloughesy T, Zaidel E. Alien hand syndrome: interhemispheric motor disconnection due to a lesion in the midbody of the corpus callosum. Neurology. 1995;45:802–8.
Campbell A, Bogen J, Smith A. Disorganization and reorganization of cognitive and sensorimotor functions in cerebral commissurotomy. Brain. 1981;104:493–511.
Sass KJ, Novelly R, Spencer DD, Spencer SS. Mnestic and attention impairments following corpus callosum section for epilepsy. J Epilepsy. 1988;1:61–6.
Morrell F, Whisler WW, Bleck TP. Multiple subpial transection. A new approach to the surgical treatment of focal epilepsy. J Neurosurg. 1989;70:231–9.
Mountcastle VB. The columnar organization of the neocortex. Brain. 1997;120:701–22.
Mountcastle VB. Modality and topographic properties of single neurons of cat’s somatic cortex. J Neurophysiol. 1957;20:408–34.
Chervin RD, Pierce PA, Connors BW. Periodicity and directionality in the propagation of epileptiform discharces across neocortex. J Neurophysiol. 1988;60:1695–713.
Wadman WJ, Gutnick MJ. Non-uniform propagation of epileptiform discharge in brain slices of rat neocortex. Neurosience. 1993;52:255–62.
Lueders H, Bustamante LA, Zablow L, Goldensohn ES. The independence of closely spaced discrete experimental spike foci. Neurology. 1981;31:846–51.
Reichenthal E, Hocherman S. The critical cortical area for development of penicillin-induced epilepsy. Electrencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1977;42:248–51.
Buelow JM, Aydelott P, Pierz DM, Heck B. Multiple subpial transection for Landau-Kleffner syndrome. AORN J. 1996;63:727–44.
Grote CL, Van Slyke P, Hoeppner JA. Language outcome following multiple subpial transections for Landau-Kleffner syndrome. Brain. 1999;122:561–6.
Morrell F, Whisler WW, Smith MC, Hoeppner TJ, de Toledo-Morrell L, Pierre-Louis SJ, Kanner AM, Buelow JM, Ristanovic R, Bergen D, et al. Landau-Kleffner syndrome. Treatment with subpial intracortical transection. Brain. 1995;118:1529–46.
Blount JP, Langburt W, Otsubo H, Chitoku S, Ochi A, Weiss S, Snead OC, Rutka JT. Multiple subpial transections in the treatment of pediatric epilepsy. J Neurosurg. 2004;100:118–24. https://doi.org/10.3171/ped.2004.100.2.0118.
Shimizu H, Maehara T. Neuronal disconnection for the surgical treatment of pediatric epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2000;41(Suppl 9):28–30.
Ntsambi-Eba G, Vaz G, Docquier MA, van Rijckevorsel K, Raftopoulos C. Patients with refractory epilepsy treated using a modified multiple subpial transection technique. Neurosurgery. 2013;72:890–7; discussion 897–8. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0b013e31828ba750.
Patil AA, Andrews R. Long term follow-up after multiple hippocampal transection (MHT). Seizure J Br Epilepsy Assoc. 2013;22:731–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2013.05.014.
Polkey CE. Multiple subpial transection: a clinical assessment. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2001;45:547–69.
Rolston JD, Deng H, Wang DD, Englot DJ, Chang EF. Multiple subpial transections for medically refractory epilepsy: a disaggregated review of patient-level data. Neurosurgery. 2017;82(5):613–20.
Schramm J, Aliashkevich AF, Grunwald T. Multiple subpial transections: outcome and complications in 20 patients who did not undergo resection. J Neurosurg. 2002;97:39–47.
Hufnagel A, Zentner J, Fernandez G, Wolf HK, Schramm J, Elger CE. Multiple subpial transection for control of epilleptic seizures: effectiveness and safety. Epilepsia. 1997;38:678–88.
Benifla M, Otsubo H, Ochi A, Snead OC 3rd, Rutka JT. Multiple subpial transection in pediatric epilepsy: indications and outcomes. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22:992–8.
Benifla M, Rutka JT, Logan W, Donner EJ. Vagal nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy in children: indications and experience at the Hospital for Sick children. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22:1018–26.
Behdad A, Limbrick DD, Bertrand M, et al. Epilepsy surgery in children with seizures arising from the rolandic cortex. Epilepsia. 2009;50(6):1450–61.
Spencer SS, Schramm J, Wyler A, O’Connor M, Orbach D, Krauss G, Sperling M, Devinsky O, Elger C, Lesser R, Mulligan L, Westerveld M. Multiple subpial transection for intractable partial epilepsy: an international meta-analysis. Epilepsia. 2002;43:141–5.
Orbach D, Romanelli P, Devinsky O, Doyle W. Late seizure recurrence after multiple subpial transections. Epilepsia. 2001;42(9):1130–3.
Irwin K, Birch V, Lees J, Polkey C, Alarcon G, Binnie C, Smedley M, Baird G, Robinson RO. Multiple subpial transections in Landau-Kleffner syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2001;43:248–52.
Cross JH, Neville BG. The surgical treatment of Landau-Kleffner syndrome. Epilepsia. 2009;50(Suppl 7):63–7.
Downes M, Greenaway R, Clark M, Helen Cross J, Jolleff N, Harkness W, Kaliakatsos M, Boyd S, White S, Neville BG. Outcome following multiple subpial transection in Landau-Kleffner syndrome and related regression. Epilepsia. 2015;56(11):1760–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.13132.
Gaylor JM, Raman G, Chung M, et al. Cochlear implantation in adults. A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013;139(3):265–72.
North RB, et al. Spinal cord stimulation versus re-operation in patients with failed back surgery syndrome: an international multicenter randomised controlled trial (EVIDENCE Study). Neuromodulation. 2011;14:330–6.
Weaver FM, Follett K, Stern M, et al. Bilateral deep brain stimulation vs best medical therapy for patients with advanced Parkinson disease: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009;301(1):63–73.
Richardson RM, Abel TJ. A new era for surgical neurotherapeutics. Neurotherapeutics. 2019;16(1):1–2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-019-00709-4.
Hartshorn A, Jobst B. Responsive brain stimulation in epilepsy. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2018;9(7):135–42.
McGovern RA, Banks GP, McKhann GM II. New techniques and progress in epilepsy surgery. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-016-0661-6.
Kwon C-S, Jetté N, Ghatan S. Perspectives on the current developments with neuromodulation for the treatment of epilepsy. Expert Rev Neurother. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2020.1700795.
Kwaku K, Ohemeng BS, Parham K. Vagal nerve stimulation. Indications, implantation, and outcomes. Otolaryngol Clin N Am. 2020;53:127–43.
Bigelow MD, Kouzani AZ. Neural stimulation systems for the control of refractory epilepsy: a review. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2019;16:126. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12984-019-0605-x.
Schulze-Bonhage A. Long-term outcome in neurostimulation of epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2019;91:25–9.
Bailey P, Bremer F. A sensory cortical representation of the vagus nerve: with a note on the effects of low blood pressure on the cortical electrogram. J Neurophysiol. 1938;1(5):405–12.
Dell P, Olson R. Projections thalamiques, corticales et ce´re´belleuses des affe´rences visce´ rales vagales. Comptes rendus des se´ances de la Socie´te´ de biologie et de ses filiales. 1951;145(13-1):1084–8.
Zabara J. Inhibition of experimental seizures in canines by repetitive vagal stimulation. Epilepsia. 1992;33(6):1005–12.
Terry RS, Tarver WB, Zabara J. The implantable neurocybernetic prosthesis system. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1991;14(1):86–93.
Penry JK, Dean C. Prevention of intractable seizures by intermittent vagal stimulation in humans: preliminary results. Epilepsia. 1990;31(Suppl 2):S40–3.
Browne G. Cyberonics announces 100,000th patient implant of VNS therapy. 2012.
Rychlicki F, Zamponi N, Cesaroni E, Corpaci L, Trignani R, Ducati A, et al. Complications of vagal nerve stimulation for epilepsy in children. Neurosurg Rev. 2006;29:103–7.
Ben-Menachem E. Vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy. Lancet Neurol. 2002;1(8):477–82.
Ben-Menachem E, Manon-Espaillat R, Ristanovic R, Wilder BJ, Stefan H, Mirza W, Tarver WB, Wernicke JF. Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of partial seizures: 1. A controlled study of effect on seizures. First International Vagus Nerve Stimulation Study Group. Epilepsia. 1994;35:616–26.
Handforth A, DeGiorgio CM, Schachter SC, Uthman BM, Naritoku DK, Tecoma ES, Henry TR, Collins SD, Vaughn BV, Gilmartin RC, Labar DR, Morris GL 3rd, Salinsky MC, Osorio I, Ristanovic RK, Labiner DM, Jones JC, Murphy JV, Ney GC, Wheless JW. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy for partial-onset seizures: a randomized active-control trial. Neurology. 1998;51:48–55.
Morris GL, Mueller MW. Long-term treatment with vagus nerve stimulation in patients with refractory epilepsy. The vagus nerve stimulation study group E01-E05. Neurology. 1999;53:1731–5.
The Vagus Nerve Stimulation Study Group. A randomized controlled trial of chronic vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of medically intractable seizures. Neurology. 1995;45(2):224–30.
Alexander GM, Huang YZ, Soderblom EJ, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation modifies neuronal activity and the proteome of excitatory synapses of amygdala/piriform cortex. J Neurochem. 2017;140:629–44.
Krahl SE, Clark KB. Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: a review of central mechanisms. Neurol Int. 2012;3:S47–52. https://doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.103015.
Henry TR, Bakay RAE, Votaw JR, et al. Brain blood flow alterations induced by therapeutic vagus nerve stimulation in partial epilepsy: I. Acute effects at high and low levels of stimulation. Epilepsia. 1998;39(9):983–90.
Van Laere K, Vonck K, Boon P, Versijpt J, Dierckx R. Perfusion SPECT changes after acute and chronic vagus nerve stimulation in relation to prestimulus condition and long-term clinical efficacy. J Nucl Med. 2002;43(6):733–44.
Vonck K, Van LK, Dedeurwaerdere S, Caemaert J, De RJ, Boon P. The mechanism of action of vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy: the current status. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2001;18:394–401.
Chase MH, Nakamura Y, Clemente CD, Sterman MB. Afferent vagal stimulation: neurographic correlates of induced EEG synchronization and desynchronization. Brain Res. 1967;5:236–49.
Ginn C, Patel B, Walker R. Existing and emerging applications for the neuromodulation of nerve activity through targeted delivery of electric stimuli. Int J Neurosci. 2019;129(10):1013–23.
Henry TR. Therapeutic mechanisms of vagus nerve stimulation. Neurology. 2002;59:S3–S14.
Koo B. EEG changes with vagus nerve stimulation. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2001;18:434–41.
Randall WC, Ardell JL, Becker DM. Differential responses accompanying sequential stimulation and ablation of vagal branches to dog heart. Am J Physiol. 1985;249:133–40.
Samadani U, Baltuch GH. Vagus nerve stimulation. In: Baltuch GH, Villemure JG, editors. Operative techniques in epilepsy surgery. New York: Thieme; 2009. p. 149–57.
De Oliveira T, Franciscco AN, Demartini Z, et al. The role of vagus nerve stimulation in refractory epilepsy. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2017;75(9):657–66.
Giordano F, Zicca A, Barba C, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation: surgical technique of implantation and revision and related morbidity. Epilepsia. 2017;58(Suppl. 1):85–90.
Santos PM. Evaluation of laryngeal function after implantation of the vagus nerve stimulation device. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;129(3):269–73.
Shaw GY, Sechtem P, Searl J, Dowdy ES. Predictors of laryngeal complications in patients implanted with the Cyberonics vagal nerve stimulator. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2006;115(4):260–7.
Kumar R, Winston KR, Folzenlogen Z. Removal of vagus nerve stimulator leads and reuse of same site for reimplantation: technique and experience. World Neurosurg. 2016;91:190–4.
Ramani R. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy for seizures. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2008;20(1):29–35.
Aalbers MW, Rijkers K, Klinkenberg S, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation lead removal or replacement: surgical technique, institutional experience, and literature overview. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2015;157:1917–24.
Clark A, Kupermann RA, Auguste KI, et al. Intractable episodic bradycardia resulting from progressive lead traction in an epileptic child with a vagus nerve stimulator: a delayed complication. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2012;9:389–93.
Couch JD, Gilman AM, Doyle WK. Long-term expectations of vagus nerve stimulation: a look at battery replacement and revision surgery. Neurosurgery. 2016;78:42–6.
Dlouhy BJ, Viljoen SV, Kung DK, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation after lead revision. Neurosurg Focus. 2012;32:E11.
Espinosa J, Aiello MT, Naritoku DK. Revision and removal of stimulating electrodes following long-term therapy with the vagus nerve stimulator. Surg Neurol. 1999;51:659–64.
Kahlow H, Olivecrona M. Complications of vagal nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: a single center longitudinal study of 143 patients. Seizure. 2013;22:827–33.
Kalkanis JG, Krishna P, Espinosa JA, et al. Self-inflicted vocal cord paralysis in patients with vagus nerve stimulators. Report of two cases. J Neurosurg. 2002;96:949–51.
McDonald J, Couldwell WT. Revision of vagal nerve stimulator electrodes: technical approach. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2004;146:567–70.
Ortler M, Unterhofer C, Dobesberger J, et al. Complete removal of vagus nerve stimulator generator and electrodes. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2010;5:191–4.
Revesz D, Rydenhag B, Ben-Menachem E. Complications and safety of vagus nerve stimulation: 25 years of experience at a single center. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2016;18:97–104.
Rijkers K, Berfelo MW, Cornips EM, et al. Hardware failure in vagus nerve stimulation therapy. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2008;150:403–5.
Smyth MD, Tubbs RS, Bebin EM, Grabb PA, Blount JP. Complications of chronic of chronic vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy in children. J Neurosurg. 2003;99:500–3.
Tran Y, Shah AK, Mittal S. Lead breakage and vocal cord paralysis following blunt neck trauma in a patient with vagal nerve stimulator. J Neurol Sci. 2011;304:132–5.
Ng WH, Donner E, Go C, et al. Revision of vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) electrodes: review and report on use of ultra-sharp monopolar tip. Childs Nerv Syst. 2010;26:1081–4.
Fahy BG. Intraoperative and perioperative complications with a vagus nerve stimulation device. J Clin Anesth. 2010;22:213–22.
Hatton KW, McLarney JT, Pittman T, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation: overview and implications for anesthesiologists. Anesth Analg. 2006;103:1241–9.
Horowitz G, Amit M, Fried I, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy: the surgical procedure and complications in 100 implantations by a single medical center. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;270:355–8.
Navas M, Navarrete EG, Pascual JM, et al. Treatment of refractory epilepsy in adult patients with right-sided vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy Res. 2010;90:1–7.
Spuck S, Tronnier V, Orosz I, Schönweiler R, Sepehrnia A, Nowak G, et al. Operative and technical complications of vagus nerve stimulator implantation. Neurosurgery. 2010;67:489–94.
Tatum WO, Moore DB, Stecker MM, et al. Ventricual asystole during vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy in humans. Neurology. 1999;52:1267–9.
Zalvan C, Sulica L, Wolf S, et al. Laryngopharyngeal dysfunction from the implant vagal nerve stimulator. Laryngoscope. 2003;113:221–5.
O’Neill BR, Wilberger JE. Revision of vagal nerve stimulator electrodes through a posterior cervical triangle approach: technical note. Neurosurgery. 2010;67(2 Suppl Operative):457–60.
Amar AP, Heck CN, Levy ML, Smith T, DeGiorgio CM, Oviedo S, Apuzzo ML. An institutional experience with cervical vagus nerve trunk stimulation for medically refractory epilepsy: rationale, technique, and outcome. Neurosurgery. 1998;43:1265–76; discussion 1276–80.
DeGiorgio C, Heck C, Bunch S, Britton J, Green P, Lancman M, Murphy J, Olejniczak P, Shih J, Arrambide S, Soss J. Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: randomized comparison of three stimulation paradigms. Neurology. 2005;65:317–9. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000168899.11598.00.
Klinkenberg S, Aalbers MW, Vles JS, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with intractable epilepsy: a randomized controlled trial. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2012;54(9):855–61.
Ryvlin P, Gilliam FG, Nguyen DK, et al. The long-term effect of vagus nerve stimulation on quality of life in patients with pharmacoresistant focal epilepsy: the PuLsE (Open Prospective Randomized Long-term Effectiveness) trial. Epilepsia. 2014;55(6):893–900.
Scherrmann J, Hoppe C, Kral T, Schramm J, Elger CE. Vagus nerve stimulation: clinical experience in a large patient series. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2001;18:408–14.
DeGiorgio CM, Schachter SC, Handforth A, Salinsky M, Thompson J, Uthman B, Reed R, Collins S, Tecoma E, Morris GL, Vaughn B, Naritoku DK, Henry T, Labar D, Gilmartin R, Labiner D, Osorio I, Ristanovic R, Jones J, Murphy J, Ney G, Wheless J, Lewis P, Heck C. Prospective long-term study of vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of refractory seizures. Epilepsia. 2000;41(9):1195–200.
González HFJ, Yengo-Kahn A, Englot DJ. Vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2019;30:219–30.
Wiebe S, Jette N. Randomized trials and collaborative research in epilepsy sugery: future directions. Can J Neurol Sci. 2006;33:365–71.
Ardesch JJ, Buschman HP, Wagener-Schimmel LJ, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for medically refractory epilepsy: a long-term follow-up study. Seizure. 2007;16(7):579–85.
Ardesch JJ, Buschman HP, van der Burgh PH, Wagener-Schimmel LJ, van der Aa HE, Hageman G, et al. Cardiac responses of vagus nerve stimulation: intra-operative bradycardia and subsequent chronic stimulation. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2007;109:849–52.
Ben-Menachem E, Hellstrom K, Waldton C, Augustinson LE. Evaluation of refractory epilepsy treated with vagus nerve stimulation for up to 5 years. Neurology. 1999;52:1265–7.
Boon P, Vonck K, van Rijckevorsel K, et al. A prospective, multicenter study of cardiac-based seizure detection to activate vagus nerve stimulation. Seizure. 2015;32:52–61.
Chavel SM, Westerveld M, Spencer S. Long-term outcome of vagus nerve stimulation for refractory partial epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2003;4(3):302–9.
Fisher RS, Afra P, Macken M, et al. Automatic vagus nerve stimulation triggered by ictal tachycardia: clinical outcomes and device performance—the U.S. E-37 trial. Neuromodulation. 2016;19:188–95.
Huf RL, Mamelak A, Kneedy-Cayem K. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy: 2-year prospective open-label study of 40 subjects with refractory epilepsy and low IQ who are living in long-term care facilities. Epilepsy Behav. 2005;6:417–23.
Kang HC, Hwang YS, Kim DS, Kim HD. Vagus nerve stimulation in pediatric intractable epilepsy: a Korean bicentric study. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2006;99:93–6.
Labar D, Murphy J, Tecoma E. Vagus nerve stimulation for medication-resistant generalized epilepsy. E04 VNS Study Group. Neurology. 1999;52(7):1510–2.
Parker AP, Polkey CE, Binnie CD, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation in epileptic encephalopathies. Pediatrics. 1999;103(4):778–82.
Salinsky MC, Uthman BM, Ristanovic RK, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of medically intractable seizures. results of a 1-year open extension trial. Arch Neurol. 1996;53:1176–80.
Vonck K, Thadani V, Gilbert K, Dedeurwaerdere S, De Groote L, De Herdt V, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy: a transatlantic experience. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;21:283–9.
Majoie HJ, Berfelo MW, Aldenkamp AP, Evers SM, Kessels AG, Renier WO. Vagus Nerve stimulation in children with therapy-resistant epilepsy diagnosed as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2001;18:419–28.
Amar AP, Apuzzo ML, Liu CY. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy after failed cranial surgery for intractable epilepsy: results from the vagus nerve stimulation therapy patient outcome registry. Neurosurgery. 2004;55:1086–93.
George R, Salinsky M, Kuzniecky R, Rosenfeld W, Bergen D, Tarver WB, Wernicke JF, First International Vagus Nerve Stimulation Study Group. Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of partial seizures: 3. Long-term follow-up on first 67 patients exiting a controlled study. Epilepsia. 1994;35:637–43.
Helmers SL, Whenless JW, Frost M, Gates J, Levisohn P, Tardo C, Conry JA, Yalnizoglou D, Madsen JR. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy in pediatric patients with refractory epilepsy: a retrospective study. J Child Neurol. 2001;16:843–8.
Labar D. Vagus nerve stimulation for 1 year in 269 patients on unchanged antiepileptic drugs. Seizure. 2004;13:392–8.
Murphy JV, Pediatric VNS Study Group. Left vagal nerve stimulation in children with medically refractory epilepsy. J Pediatr. 1999;134:563–6.
Patwardhan RV, Strong B, Bebin EM, Mathisen J, Grabb PA. Efficacy of vagal nerve stimulation in children with medically refractory epilepsy. Neurosurgery. 2000;47:1353–7; discussion 1357–8.
Spanaki MV, Allen LS, Mueller WM, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy: 5-year of greater outcome at a university-based epilepsy center. Seizure. 2004;13:587–90.
Alexopoulos AV, Kotagal P, Loddenkemper T, Hammel J, Bingaman WE. Long-term results with vagus nerve stimulation in children with pharmacoresistant epilepsy. Seizure. 2006;15:491–503.
Frost M, Gates J, Helmers SL, Wheless JW, Levisohn P, Tardo C, Conry JA. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with refractory seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilpesia. 2001;42:1148–52.
Murphy JV, Torkelson R, Dowler I, Simon S, Hudson S. Vagal nerve stimulation in refractory epilepsy: the first 100 patients receiving vagal nerve stimulation at a pediatric center. Arch Adolesc Med. 2003;157:260–4.
Renfroe JB, Wheless JW. Earlier use of adjunctive nerve stimulation therapy for refractory epilepsy. Neurology. 2002;59:S26–30.
Shahwan A, Bailey C, Maxiner W, Harvey AS. Vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy in children: more to VNS than seizure frequency reduction. Epilepsia. 2009;50:1220–8.
Uthman BM, Reichl AM, Dean JC, Eisenschenk S, Gilmore R, Reid S, Roper SN, Wilder BJ. Effectiveness of vagus nerve stimulation in epilepsy patients: a 12-year observation. Neurology. 2004;63:1124–6.
De Herdt V, Boon P, Ceulemans B, Hauman H, Lagae L, Legros B, Sadzot B, Van Bogaert P, van Rijckevorsel K, Verhelst H, Vonck K. Vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy: a Belgian multicenter study. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2007;11:261–9.
Elliott RE, Morsi A, Kalhorn SP, Marcus J, Sellin J, Kang M, Silverberg A, Rivera E, Geller E, Carlson C, Devinsky O, Doyle WK. Vagus nerve stimulation in 436 consecutive patients with treatment-resistant epilepsy: long-term outcomes and predictors of response. Epilepsy Behav. 2011;20:57–63.
Elliott RE, Rodgers SD, Bassani L, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for children with treatment-resistant epilepsy: a consecutive series of 141 cases. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2011;7:491–500.
Tatum WOT, Helmers SL. Vagus nerve stimulation and magnet use: optimizing benefits. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;15:299–302.
Wang H-J, Zhu GTL, Chen D, et al. Predictors of seizure reduction outcome after vagus nerve stimulation in drug-resistant epilepsy. Eur J Epilepsy. 2019;66:53–60.
Englot DJ, Chang EF, Auguste KI. Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: a meta-analysis of efficacy and predictors of response. J Neurosurg. 2011;115:1248–55.
Englot DJ, Chang EF, Auguste KI. Efficacy of vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy by patient age, epilepsy duration, and seizure type. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2011;22:443–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nec.2011.07.002.
Englot DJ, Rolston JD, Wright CW, et al. Rates and predictors of seizure freedom with vagus nerve stimulation for intractable epilepsy. Neurosurgery. 2015;79(3):345–53.
Ben-Menachem E. Vagus nerve stimulation, side effects, and long-term safety. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2001;18:415–8.
Kostov K, Kostov H, Tauboll E. Longterm vagus nerve stimulation in the treatment of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;16:321–4.
Rosenfeld WE, Roberts DW. Tonic and atonic seizures: what’s next—VNS or callosotomy? Epilepsia. 2009;50(Suppl. 8):25–30.
Rolston JD, Englot DJ, Wang DD, Garcia PA, Chang EF. Corpus callosotomy versus vagus nerve stimulation for atonic seizures and drop attacks: a systematic review. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;51:13–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.06.001.
Marras CE, Chiesa V, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in refractory epilepsy: new indications and outcome assessment. Epilepsy Behav. 2013; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2013.05.021.
Kubota Y, Nakamoto H, Miyao S, Kawamata T. Efficacy of vagal nerve stimulation for pharmacoresistant poststroke epilepsy. World Neurosurg. 2020;133:e448–51.
Hoppe C, Wagner L, Hoffmann JM, et al. Comprehensive long-term outcome of best drug treatment with or without add-on vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: a retrospective matched pairs case-control study. Seizure. 2013;22(2):109–15.
Sherman EM, Connolly MB, Slick DJ, Eyrl KL, Steinbok P, Farrell K. Quality of life and seizure outcome after vagus nerve stimulation in children with intractable epilepsy. J Child Neurol. 2008;23:991–8.
Aldenkamp AP, Majoie HJ, Berfelo MW, Evers SM, Kessels AG, Renier WO, Wilmink J. Long-term effects of 24-month treatment with vagus nerve stimulation on behavior in children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsy Behav. 2002;3:475–9.
Arya R, Greiner HM, Lewis A, Horn PS, Mangano FT, Gonsalves C, et al. Predictors of response to vagus nerve stimulation in childhood-onset medically refractory epilepsy. J Child Neurol. 2014;29:1652–9.
Amar AP, Apuzzo ML, Liu CY. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy after failed cranial surgery for intractable epilepsy: results from the vagus nerve stimulation therapy patient outcome registry. Neurosurgery. 2008;62(Suppl 2):506–13.
Koutroumanidis M, Binnie CD, Hennessy MJ, Alarcon G, Elwes RDC, Toone BK, Chandler C, Selway R, Polkey C, O’Connor SA. VNS in patients with previous unsuccessful resective epilepsy surgery: antiepileptic and psychotropic effects. Acta Neurol Scand. 2003;107:117–21.
Vale FL, Ahmadian A, Youssef AS, Tatum WO, Benabis SR. Long-term outcome of vagus nerve stimulation therapy after failed epilepsy surgery. Seizure. 2011;20:244–8.
Lesser RP. Unexpected places. How did vagus nerve stimulation become a treatment for epilepsy? Neurology. 1999;52:1117–8.
Englot DJ, Rolston JD, Wang DD, Hassnain KH, Gordon CM, Chang EF. Efficacy of vagus nerve stimulation in posttraumatic versus nontraumatic epilepsy. J Neurosurg. 2012;117:970–7. https://doi.org/10.3171/2012.8.JNS122.
Lee HO, Koh EJ, Oh YM, Park SS, Kwon KH, Choi HY. Effect of vagus nerve stimulation in post-traumatic epilepsy and failed epilepsy surgery: preliminary report. J Korean Neurosurg Soc. 2008;44(4):196–8.
Ryvlin P, So EL, Gordon CM, et al. Long-term surveillance of SUDEP in drug-resistant epilepsy patients treated with VNS therapy. Epilepsia. 2018;59(3):562–72.
Elger G, Hoppe C, Falkai P, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation is associated with mood improvements in epilepsy patients. Epilepsy Res. 2000;42(2–3):203–10.
Ergene E, Behr PK, Shih JJ. Quality-of-life assessment in patients treated with vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy Behav. 2001;2:284–7.
George MS, Rush AJ, Sackeim HA, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS): utility in neuropsychiatric disorders. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2003;6(1):73–83.
Harden CL, Pulver MC, Radvin LD, Nikolov B, Halper JP, Labar DR. A pilot study of mood in epilepsy patients treated via vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy Behav. 2000;1:93–9.
Marlow BA, Edwards J, Marzec M, Sagher O, Ross D, Fromes G. Vagus nerve stimulation reduces daytime sleepiness in epilepsy patients. Neurology. 2001;57:879–84.
Englot DJ, Hassnain KH, Rolston JD, et al. Quality-of-life metrics with vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy from provider survey data. Epilepsy Behav. 2017;66:4–9.
Cramer J. Exploration of changes in health related quality of life after 3 months of vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsy Behav. 2001;2:460–5.
Ventureyra EC. Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation for partial onset seizure therapy. A new concept. Childs Nerv Syst. 2000;16(2):101–2.
Stefan H, Kreiselmeyer G, Kerling F, et al. Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS) in pharmacoresistant epilepsies: a proof of concept trial. Epilepsia. 2012;53(7):115–8.
Aihua L, Lu S, Liping L, et al. A controlled trial of transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of pharmacoresistant epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2014;39:105–10.
Bauer S, Baier H, Baumgartner C, Bohlmann K, Fauser S, Graf W, et al. Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS) for treatment of drug resistant epilepsy: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial (cMPsE02). Brain Stimul. 2016;9(3):356–63.
Liu A, Rong P, Gong L, et al. Efficacy and safety of treatment with transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation in 17 patients with refractory epilepsy evaluated by electroencephalogram, seizure frequency, and quality of life. Med Sci Monit. 2018;24:8439–48.
Eggleston KS, Olin BD, Fisher RS. Ictal tachycardia: the head-heart connection. Seizure. 2014;23:496–505.
Chen W, Meng FG. Ictal heart rate changes and the effects of vagus nerve stimulation for patients with refractory epilepsy. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2017;13:2351–6.
Ravan M. Investigating the correlation between short-term effectiveness of VNS Therapy in reducing the severity of seizures and long-term responsiveness. Epilepsy Res. 2017;133:46–53.
Hamilton P, Soryal I, Dhahri P, Wimalachandra W, Leat A, Hughes D, et al. Clinical outcomes of VNS therapy with AspireSR® (including cardiac-based seizure detection) at a large complex epilepsy and surgery centre. Seizure. 2018;58:120–6.
Kringelbach ML, Jenkinson N, Owen SL, Aziz TZ. Translational principles of deep brain stimulation. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2007;8(8):623–35.
Moruzzi G. Effects at different frequencies of cerebellar stimulation upon postural tonus and myotatic reflexes. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1950;2:463–9.
Tyrand R, Seeck M, Pollo C, Boex C. Effects of amygdala-hippocampal stimulation on synchronization. Epilepsy Res. 2014;108:327–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2013.11.024.
Laxpati NG, Kasoff WS, Gross RE. Deep brain stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy: circuits, targets, and trials. Neurotherapeutics. 2014;11:508–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-014-0279-9.
Velasco AL, Velasco F, Jimenez F, Velasco M, Castro G, Carrillo-Ruiz JD, Fanghänel G, Boleaga B. Neuromodulation of the centromedian thalamic nuclei in the treatment of generalized seizures and the improvement of quality of life in patients with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia. 2006;47:1203–12.
Sprengers M, Vuncle K, Carrett E, et al. Deep brain and cortical stimulation for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;7:1–107.
Fridley J, Thomas JG, Navarro JC, Yoshor D. Brain stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy. Neurosurg Focus. 2012;32(3):E13. https://doi.org/10.3171/2012.
Rolston JD, Englot DJ, Wang DD, Shih T, Chang EF. Comparison of seizure control outcomes and the safety of vagus nerve, thalamic deep brain, and responsive neurostimulation: evidence from randomized controlled trials. Neurosurg Focus. 2012;32(3):E14. https://doi.org/10.3171/2012.1.
Rolston JD, Blevins LS Jr. Gamma knife radiosurgery for acromegaly. Int J Endocrinol. 2012; https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/821579. Epub 2012 Feb 13
Halpern CH, Samadani U, Litt B, Jaggi JL, Baltuch GH. Deep brain stimulation for epilepsy. Neurotherapeutics. 2008;5(1):59–67.
Lehtimäki K, Coenen VA, Ferreira AG, et al. The surgical approach to the anterior nucleus of thalamus in patients with refractory epilepsy: experience from the international multicenter registry (MORE). Neurosurgery. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyy023.
Koeppen JA, Nahravani F, Kramer M, et al. Electrical stimulation of the anterior thalamus for epilepsy: clinical outcome and analysis of efficient target. Neuromodulation. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1111/ner.12865.
Schaper FLWVJ, Zhao Y, Janssen MLF, et al. Single-cell recordings to target the anterior nucleus of the thalamus in deep brain stimulation for patients with refractory epilepsy. Int J Neural Syst. 2019;29(4):1850012. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0129065718500120.
Mirski MA, Rossell LA, Terry JB, Fisher RS. Anticonvulsant effect of anterior thalamic high frequency electrical stimulation in the rat. Epilepsy Res. 1997;28:89–100.
Salanova V. Deep brain stimulation for epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.06041.
Van der Vils TAMB, Schijns OEMG, Schaper FLWVI, et al. Deep brain stimulation of the anterior nucleus of the thalamus for drug-resistant epilepsy. Neurosurg Rev. 2019;42(2):287–96.
Fisher RS, Uematsu S, Krauss G, Cysyk BJ, McPherson R, Lesser RP, Gordon B, Schwerdt P, Rise M. Placebo-controlled pilot study of centormedian thalamic stimulation in treatment of intractable seizures. Epilepsia. 1992;33:841–51.
Fisher R, Salanova V, Witt T, Worth R, Henry T, Gross R, Oommen K, Osorio I, Nazzaro J, Labar D, Kaplitt M, Sperling M, Sandok E, Neal J, Handforth A, Stern J, DeSalles A, Chung S, Shetter A, Bergen D, Bakay R, Henderson J, French J, Baltuch G, Rosenfeld W, Youkilis A, Marks W, Garcia P, Barbaro N, Fountain N, Bazil C, Goodman R, McKhann G, Babu Krishnamurthy K, Papavassiliou S, Epstein C, Pollard J, Tonder L, Grebin J, Coffey R, Graves N, SANTE Study Group. Electrical stimulation of the anterior nucleus of thalamus for treatment of refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2010;51(5):899–908.
Téllez-Zenteno JF, McLachlan RS, Parrent A, Kubu CS, Wiebe S. Hippocampal electrical stimulation in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2006;66:1490–4.
Velasco F, Carrillo-Ruiz JD, Brito F, Velasco M, Velasco AL, Marquez I, Davis R. Double-blind, randomized controlled pilot study of bilateral cerebellar stimulation for treatment of intractable motor seizures. Epilepsia. 2005;46:1071–81.
Herrman H, Egge A, Konglund AE, Ramm-Pettersen J, Dietrichs E, Taubøll E. Anterior thalamic deep brain stimulation in refractory epilepsy: a randomized, double-blinded study. Acta Neurol Scand. 2019;139(3):294–304.
Salanova V, Witt T, Worth R, Henry TR, Gross RE, Nazzaro JM, Labar D, Sperling MR, Sharan A, Sandok E, Handforth A, Stern JM, Chung S, Henderson JM, French J, Baltuch G, Rosenfeld WE, Garcia P, Barbaro NM, Fountain NB, Elias WJ, Goodman RR, Pollard JR, Troster AI, Irwin CP, Lambrecht K, Graves N, Fisher R, Group SS. Long-term efficacy and safety of thalamic stimulation for drug-resistant partial epilepsy. Neurology. 2015;84:1017–25. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000001334.
Oh SY, Kim HJ, Lee JK, et al. Cognitive improvement after long-term electrical stimulation of bilateral anterior thalamic nucleus in refractory epilepsy patients. Seizure. 2012;21:183–7.
Lee KJ, Shon YM, Cho CB. Long-term outcome of anterior thalamic nucleus stimulation for intractable epilepsy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2012;90(6):379–85.
Krishna V, King NK, Sammartino F, Strauss I, Andrade DM, Wennberg RA, et al. Anterior nucleus deep brain stimulation for refractory epilepsy: insights into patterns of seizure control and efficacious target. Neurosurgery. 2016;78(6):802–11.
Kim SH, Lim SC, Kim J, Son BC, Lee KJ, Shon YM. Long-term follow-up of anterior thalamic deep brain stimulation in epilepsy: a 11-year, single center experience. Seizure. 2017;52:154–61.
Park HR, Choi SJ, Joo EY, et al. The role of anterior thalamic deep brain stimulation as an alternative therapy in patients with previously failed vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1159/000502344.
Kim SH, Lim SC, Yang DW, et al. Thalamo-cortical network underlying deep brain stimulation of centromedian thalamic nuclei in intractable epilepsy: a multimodal imaging analysis. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2017;13:2607–19.
Hachem LD, Yan H, Ibrahim GM. Invasive neuromodulation for the treatment of pediatric epilepsy. Neurotherapeutics. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-018-00685-1.
Valentin A, Garcia Navarrete E, Chelvarajah R, et al. Deep brain stimulation of the centromedian thalamic nucleus for the treatment of generalized and frontal epilepsies. Epilepsia. 2013;54(10):1823–33.
Tröster AI, Meador KJ, Irwin CP, et al. Memory and mood outcomes after anterior thalamic stimulation for refractory partial epilepsy. Seizure. 2017;45:133–41.
Novais F, Pestana LC, Loureiro S, et al. Predicting de novo psychopathology after epilepsy surgery: a 3-year cohort study. Epilepsy Behav. 2019;90:204–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.11.037.
Lesser RP, Luders H, Klem G, et al. Cortical afterdischarge and functional response thresholds: results of extraoperative testing. Epilepsia. 1984;25:615–21.
Tran DK, Paff M, Mnatsakanyan L, et al. A novel robotic-assisted technique to implant the responsive neurostimulation system. Oper Neurosurg. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1093/ons/opz226.
Chan AY, Tran DK, Paff MR, et al. Robotic orthogonal implantation of Responsive Neurostimulation (RNS) depth electrodes in the mesial temporal lobe: case series. Oper Neurosurg. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1093/ons/opz360.
Ma BB, Rao VR. Responsive neurostimulation: candidates and considerations. Epilepsy Behav. 2018;88:388–95.
Matias CM, Sharan AD, Wu C, et al. Responsive neurostimulation for the treatment of epilepsy. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nec.2018.12.006.
Morrell MJ, Group RNSSiES. Responsive cortical stimulation for the treatment of medically intractable partial epilepsy. Neurology. 2011;77:1295–304.
Skarpaas TL, Jarosiewicz B, Morrell MJ. Brain-responsive neurostimulation for epilepsy (RNS® System). Epilepsy Res. 2019;153:68–70.
Elder C, Friedman D, Devinsky O, Doyle W, Dugan P. Responsive neurostimulation targeting the anterior nucleus of the thalamus in 3 patients with treatmentresistant multifocal epilepsy. Epilepsia Open. 2019;4(1):187–92.
Sisterson ND, Wozny TA, Kokkinos V, et al. Closed-loop brain stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: towards an evidence-based approach to personalized medicine. Neurotherapeutics. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-018-00682-4.
Heck CN, King-Stephens D, Massey AD, Nair DR, Jobst BC, Barkley GL, Salanova V, Cole AJ, Smith MC, Gwinn RP, Skidmore C, Van Ness PC, Bergey GK, Park YD, Miller I, Geller E, Rutecki PA, Zimmerman R, Spencer DC, Goldman A, Edwards JC, Leiphart JW, Wharen RE, Fessler J, Fountain NB, Worrell GA, Gross RE, Eisenschenk S, Duckrow RB, Hirsch LJ, Bazil C, O’Donovan CA, Sun FT, Courtney TA, Seale CG, Morrell MJ. Two-year seizure reduction in adults with medically intractable partial onset epilepsy treated with responsive neurostimulation: final results of the RNS System Pivotal trial. Epilepsia. 2014;55:432–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.12534.
Bergey GK, Morrell MJ, Mizrahi EM, Goldman A, King-Stephens D, Nair D, Srinivasan S, Jobst B, Gross RE, Shields DC, Barkley G, Salanova V, Olejniczak P, Cole A, Cash SS, Noe K, Wharen R, Worrell G, Murro AM, Edwards J, Duchowny M, Spencer D, Smith M, Geller E, Gwinn R, Skidmore C, Eisenschenk S, Berg M, Heck C, Van Ness P, Fountain N, Rutecki P, Massey A, O’Donovan C, Labar D, Duckrow RB, Hirsch LJ, Courtney T, Sun FT, Seale CG. Long-term treatment with responsive brain stimulation in adults with refractory partial seizures. Neurology. 2015;84:810–7.
Nair D, Morrell MJ, RNS System Investigators. Nine-year prospective safety and effectiveness outcomes from the long-term treatment trial of the RNS® system. In: AES. Annual Meeting Abstract Database. 2018. AESnet.org.
Meador KJ, Kapur R, Loring DW, et al. Quality of life and mood in patients with medically intractable epilepsy treated with targeted responsive neurostimulation. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;45:242–7.
Geller EB, Skarpaas TL, Gross RE, et al. Brain-responsive neurostimulation in patients with medically intractable mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2017;58:994–1004.
Jobst BC, Kapur R, Barkley GL, et al. Brain-responsive neurostimulation in patients with medically intractable seizures arising from eloquent and other neocortical areas. Epilepsia. 2017;58:1005–14.
Singhal NS, Numis AL, Lee MB, et al. Responsive neurostimulation for treatment of pediatric drug-resistant epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav Case Rep. 2018;10:21–4.
Loring DW, Kapur R, Meador KJ, et al. Differential neuropsychological outcomes following targeted responsive neurostimulation for partial-onset epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2015;56:1836–44.
Lundstrom BN, Worrell GA, Stead M, et al. Chronic subthreshold cortical stimulation: a therapeutic and potentially restorative therapy for focal epilepsy. Expert Rev Neurother. 2017;17:661–6.
Child ND, Stead M, Wirrell EC, et al. Chronic subthreshold subdural cortical stimulation for the treatment of focal epilepsy originating from eloquent cortex. Epilepsia. 2014;55:e18–21.
Lundstrom BN, Meisel C, Van Gompel J, et al. Comparing spiking and slow wave activity from invasive electroencephalography in patients with and without seizures. Clin Neurophysiol. 2018;129:909–19.
Velasco M, Velasco F, Velasco AL, et al. Subacute electrical stimulation of the hippocampus blocks intractable temporal lobe seizures and paroxysmal EEG activities. Epilepsia. 2000;41:158–69.
Westin K, Lundstrom BN, Van Gompel J, et al. Neurophysiological effects of continuous cortical stimulation in epilepsy—spike and spontaneous ECoG activity. Clin Neurophysiol. 2019;130:38–45.
Lundstrom BN, Gompel JV, Khadjevand F, et al. Chronic subthreshold cortical stimulation and stimulation-related EEG biomarkers for focal epilepsy. Brain Commun. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcz010.
Lundstrom BN, Gompel JV, Britton J, et al. Chronic subthreshold cortical stimulation to treat focal epilepsy. JAMA Neurol. 2016;73:1370–2.
Kerezoudis P, Grewal SS, Stead M, et al. Chronic subthreshold cortical stimulation for adult drug-resistant focal epilepsy: safety, feasibility, and technique. J Neurosurg. 2018;129:533–43.
Bourgeois M, Sainte-Rose C, Lellouch-Tubiana A, et al. Surgery of epilepsy associated with focal lesions in childhood. J Neurosurg. 1999;90:833–42.
Cascino GD, Kelly PJ, Sharbrough FW, Hulihan JF, Hirschorn KA, Trenerry MR. Long-term follow-up of stereotactic lesionectomy in partial epilepsy: predictive factors and electroencephalographic results. Epilepsia. 1992;33:639–44.
Pelliccia V, Deleo F, Gozzo F, et al. Early and late epilepsy surgery in focal epilepsies associated with long-term epilepsy-associated tumors. J Neurosurg. 2017;127(5):1147–52.
Wellmer J. Lesion focused radiofrequency thermocoagulation of bottom-of-sulcus focal cortical dysplasia type IIb: Conceptional considerations with regard to the epileptogenic zone. Epilepsy Res. 2018;142:143–8.
Fukuda M, Kameyama S, Wachi M, Tanaka R. Stereotaxy for hypothalamic hamartoma with intractable gelastic seizures: technical case report. Neurosurgery. 1999;44:1347–50.
Kuzniecky R, Guthrie B, Mountz J, Bebin M, Faught E, Gilliam F, et al. Intrinsic epileptogenesis of hypothalamic hamartomas in gelastic epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 1997;42:60–7.
Munari C, Kahane P, Francione S, Hoffmann D, Tassi L, Cusmai R, et al. Role of the hypothalamic hamartoma in the genesis of gelastic fits (a video-stereo-EEG study). Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1995;95:154–60.
Calisto A, Dorfmuller G, Fohlen M, Bulteau C, Conti A, Delalande O. Endoscopic disconnection of hypothalamic hamartomas: safety and feasibility of robot-assisted, thulium laser-based procedures. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2014;14:563–72.
Delalande O, Fohlen M. Disconnecting surgical treatment of hypothalamic hamartoma in children and adults with refractory epilepsy and proposal of a new classification. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2003;43:61–8.
Drees C, Chapman K, Prenger E, Baxter L, Maganti R, Rekate H, et al. Seizure outcome and complications following hypothalamic hamartoma treatment in adults: endoscopic, open, and Gamma Knife procedures. J Neurosurg. 2012;117:255–61.
Mittal S, Mittal M, Montes JL, Farmer JP, Andermann F. Hypothalamic hamartomas. Part 2. Surgical considerations and outcome. Neurosurg Focus. 2013;34(6):E7.
Pati S, Abla AA, Rekate HL, Ng YT. Repeat surgery for hypothalamic hamartoma in refractory epilepsy. Neurosurg Focus. 2011;30(2):E3.
Rekate HL, Feiz-Erfan I, Ng YT, Gonzalez LF, Kerrigan JF. Endoscopic surgery for hypothalamic hamartomas causing medically refractory gelastic epilepsy. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22:874–80.
Wait SD, Abla AA, Killory BD, Nakaji P, Rekate HL. Surgical approaches to hypothalamic hamartomas. Neurosurg Focus. 2011;30(2):E2.
Wellmer J, Parpaley Y, Rampp S, Popkirov S, Kugel H, Aydin Ü, Wolters CH, von Lehe M, Voges J. Lesion guided stereotactic radiofrequency thermocoagulation for palliative, in selected cases curative epilepsy surgery. Epilepsy Res. 2016;121:39–46.
Quigg M, Harden C. Minimally invasive techniques for epilepsy surgery: stereotactic radiosurgery and other technologies. J Neurosurg. 2014;121(Suppl):232–40.
Nádvorník P, Pogády J, Sramka M. Results of stereotaxic treatment in aggression syndrome. Cesk Psychiatry. 1973;69(6):357–62.
Spiegel EA, Wycis HT. Thalamic recordings in man with special reference to seizure discharges. EEG Clin Neurophysiol. 1950;2:23–7.
Flanigin HF, Nashold BS. Stereotactic lesions of the amygdala and hippocampus in epilepsy. Acta Neurochir. 1976;23:235–9.
Mundinger F, Becker P, Grolkner E. Late results of stereotactic surgery of epilepsy predominantly temporal lobe type. Acta Neurochir. 1976;23:177–82.
Umbach W. Long-term results of fornicotomy for temporal epilepsy. Confin Neurol. 1966;27:121–3. https://doi.org/10.1159/000103941.
Umbach W. Elektrophysiologische und vegetative Phänomene bei stereotaktischen Hirnoperationen. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 1966.
Narabayashi H, Nagao T, Saito Y, Yoshida M, Nagahata M. Stereotaxic amygdalotomy for behavior disorders. Arch Neurol. 1963;9:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.1963.00460070011001.
Heimburger RF, Whitlock CC, Kalsbeck JE. Stereotaxic amygdalotomy for epilepsy with aggressive behavior. JAMA. 1966;198:741–5. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1966.03110200097026.
Schwab RS, Sweet WH, Mark VH, Kjellberg RN, Ervin FR. Treatment of intractable temporal lobe epilepsy by stereotactic amygdala lesions. Trans Am Neurol Assoc. 1965;90:12–9.
Nádvorník P, Šramka M. Anatomical considerations for the stereotaxic longitudinal hippocampectomy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1974;36:177–81. https://doi.org/10.1159/000102792.
Nádvorník P, Šramka M. Longitudinal hippocampectomy. A new stereotaxic approach to the gyrus hippocampi. Confin Neurol. 1975;37(1–3):245–8.
Bouchard G, Umbach W. Indications for open and stereotactic brain surgery in epilepsy. In: Present limits of neurosurgery. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1972. p. 403–6.
Heimburger RF, Small IF, Small JG, Milstein V, Moore D. Stereotactic amygdalotomy for convulsive and behavioral disorders. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1978;41:43–51. https://doi.org/10.1159/000102399.
Kwan P, Schachter SC, Brodie MJ. Drug-resistant epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:919–26. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1004418.
Narabayashi H, Mizutani T. Epileptic seizures and the stereotaxic amygdalotomy. Confin Neurol. 1970;32(2):289–97. https://doi.org/10.1159/000103429.
Schaltenbrand G, Spuler H, Nadjmi M, Hopf HC, Wahren W. Die stereotaktische Behandlung der Epilepsien. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1966;27:111–3. https://doi.org/10.1159/000103939.
Talairach J, Szikla G. [Amygdalo-hippocampal partial destruction by yttrium-90 in the treatment of certain epilepsies of rhinencephalic manifestation]. Neurochirurgie. 1965;11:233–40.
Vaernet K. Stereotaxic amygdalotomy in temporal lobe epilepsy. Confin Neurol. 1972;34:4579788. https://doi.org/10.1159/000103055.
Parrent AG, Lozano AM. Stereotactic surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy. Can J Neurol Sci. 2000;27(Suppl 1):S79–84; discussion S92–6. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0317167100000718.
Parrent AG, Blume WT. Stereotactic amygdalohippocampotomy for the treatment of medial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1999;40:1408–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1999.tb02013.
Mempel E, Witkiewicz B, Stadnicki R, Luczywek E, Kuciński L, Pawłowski G, et al. The effect of medial amygdalotomy and anterior hippocampotomy on behavior and seizures in epileptic patients. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien). 1980;30:161–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-8592-6-20.
Voges J, Wellmer J, Büntjen L, Schmitt FC. Radiofrequency thermoablation—the neurosurgical perspective. Z Epileptol. 2017;30:98–104.
Vojtech Z, Malíková H, Krámská L, Liščák R, Vladyka V. MRI-guided stereotactic amygdalohippocampectomy: a single center experience. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2015;11:359–74.
Missios S, Bekelis K, Barnett GH. Renaissance of laser interstitial thermal ablation. Neurosurg Focus. 2015;38:E13.
Monteith S, Sheehan J, Medel R, Wintermark M, Eames M, Snell J, et al. Potential intracranial applications of magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound surgery. J Neurosurg. 2013;118:215–21.
Monteith S, Snell J, Eames M, Kassell NF, Kelly E, Gwinn R. Transcranial magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound for temporal lobe epilepsy: a laboratory feasibility study. J Neurosurg. 2016;125(6):1557–64.
Esquenazi Y, Kalamangalam GP, Slater JD, Knowlton RC, Friedman E, Morris SA, et al. Stereotactic laser ablation of epileptogenic periventricular nodular heterotopia. Epilepsy Res. 2014;108:547–54.
Patil AA, Andrews R, Torkelson R. Minimally invasive surgical approach for intractable seizure. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1995;65:86–9. https://doi.org/10.1159/000098902.
Nadvornik P, Sramka M. Longitudinal hippocampectomy. A new stereotaxic approach to the gyrus hippocampi. Confin Neurol. 1975;37(1–3):245–8.
Gonzalez-Martinez J, Vadera S, Mullin J, Enatsu R, Alexopoulos AV, Patwardhan R, Bingaman W, Najm I. Robot-assisted stereotactic laser ablation in medically intractable epilepsy: operative technique. Neurosurgery. 2014;10(Suppl 2):167–72; discussion 172–3. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000000286.
Wu C, Boorman DW, Gorniak RJ, Farrell CJ, Evans JJ, Sharan AD. The effects of anatomic variations on stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampectomy and a proposed protocol for trajectory planning. Neurosurgery. 2015;11(Suppl. 2):345–56; discussion 356–7.
Homma J, Kameyama S, Masuda H, Ueno T, Fujimoto A, Oishi M, et al. Stereotactic radiofrequency thermocoagulation for hypothalamic hamartoma with intractable gelastic seizures. Epilepsy Res. 2007;76:15–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2007.06.007.
Kameyama S, Murakami H, Masuda H, Sugiyama I. Minimally invasive magnetic resonance imaging-guided stereotactic radiofrequency thermocoagulation for epileptogenic hypothalamic hamartomas. Neurosurgery. 2009;65:438–49.
Kuzniecky RI, Guthrie BL. Stereotactic surgical approach to hypothalamic hamartomas. Epileptic Disord. 2003;5:275–80.
Wellmer J, Kopitzki K, Voges J. Lesion focused stereotactic thermo-coagulation of focal cortical dysplasia IIB: A new approach to epilepsy surgery? Seizure. 2014;23:475–9.
Bourdillon P, Rheims S, Catenoix H, et al. Surgical techniques: stereoelectroencephalography-guided radiofrequency thermocoagulation (SEEG-guided RF-TC). Eur J Epilepsy. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2019.01.021.
Guénot M, Isnard J, Ryvlvlin P, Fischer C, Mauguiere F, Sindou M. SEEG-guided RF thermocoagulation of epileptic foci: feasibility, safety, and preliminary results. Epilepsia. 2004;45:1368–74.
Bourdillon P, Isnard J, Catenoix H, Montavont A, Rheims S, Ryvlin P, et al. Stereo electroencephalography-guided radiofrequency thermocoagulation (SEEG-guided RF-TC) in drug-resistant focal epilepsy: results from a 10-year experience. Epilepsia. 2017;58:85–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.13616.
Chipaux M, Taussig D, Dorfmuller G, Dorison N, Tisdall MM, Boyd SG, Thornton R, Eltze C, Fohlen M, Cross HJ, Ferrand-Sorbets S. SEEG-guided radiofrequency thermocoagulation of epileptic foci in the paediatric population: feasibility, safety and efficacy. Seizure. 2019;70:63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2019.07.004.
Fan X, Shan Y, Lu C, et al. Optimized SEEG-guided radiofrequency thermocoagulation for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis. Eur J Epilepsy. 2019;71:304–11.
Bourdillon P, Cucherat M, Isnard J, Ostrowsky-Coste K, Catenoix H, Guénot M, et al. SEEG-guided radiofrequency thermocoagulations in patients with focal epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epilepsia. 2018;59(12):2296–304.
Dimova P, de Palma L, Job-Chapron AS, et al. Radiofrequency thermocoagulation of the seizure-onset zone during stereoelectroencephalography. Epilepsia. 2017;58(3):381–92.
Catenoix H, Bourdillon P, Guénot M, Isnard J. The combination of stereo-EEG and radiofrequency ablation. Epilepsy Res. 2018;142:117–20.
Kalina M, Lisck R, Vojtech Z, Adámková E, Procházka T, Marecková I, et al. Stereotactic amygdalohippocampectomy for temporal lobe epilepsy: promising results in 16 patients. Epileptic Disord. 2007;9(Suppl 1):S68–74. https://doi.org/10.1684/epd.2008.0158.
Liscak R, Malikova H, Kalina M, Vojtech Z, Prochazka T, Marusic P, et al. Stereotactic radiofrequency amygdalohippocampectomy in the treatment of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2010;152:1291–8.
Malikova H, Vojtech Z, Liscak R, Prochazka T, Vymazal J, Vladyka V, et al. Stereotactic radiofrequency amygdalohippocampectomy for the treatment of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: correlation of MRI with clinical seizure outcome. Epilepsy Res. 2009;83:235–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2008.11.013.
Patil AA, Andrews R, Torkelson R. Stereotactic volumetric radiofrequency lesioning of intracranial structures for control of intractable seizures. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1995;64:123–33.
Malikova H, Liscak R, Vojtech Z, Prochazka T, Vymazal J, Vladyka V, et al. Stereotactic radiofrequency amygdalohippocampectomy: does reduction of entorhinal and perirhinal cortices influence good clinical seizure outcome? Epilepsia. 2011;52:932–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03048.
Vojtech Z, Kramska L, Malikova H, Seltenreichova K, Prochazka T, Kalina M, et al. Cognitive outcome after stereotactic amygdalohippocampectomy. Seizure. 2012;21:327–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2012.02.008.
Vojtech Z, Malikova H, Kramska L, Anyz J, Syrucek M, Zamecnik J, et al. Long-term seizure outcome after stereotactic amygdalohippocampectomy. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2014;156:1529–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-014-2126-5.
Malikova H, Kramska L, Liscak R, Vojtech Z, Prochazka T, Mareckova I, et al. Stereotactic radiofrequency amygdalohippocampectomy for the treatment of temporal lobe epilepsy: do good neuropsychological and seizure outcomes correlate with hippocampal volume reduction? Epilepsy Res. 2012;102:34–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2012.04.017.
Malikova H, Kramska L, Vojtech Z, Lukavsky J, Liscak R. Stereotactic radiofrequency amygdalohippocampectomy: two years of good neuro-psychological outcomes. Epilepsy Res. 2013;106:423–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2013.07.009.
Cossu M, Fuschillo D, Cardinale F, Castana L, Francione S, Nobili L, et al. Stereo-EEG-guided radio-frequency thermo-coagulations of epileptogenic grey-matter nodular heterotopy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2014;85:611–7.
Wu Z, Zhao Q, Tian Z, Zhang J, Xiao X, Lin H, et al. Efficacy and safety of a new robot-assisted stereotactic system for radiofrequency thermocoagulation in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Exp Ther Med. 2014;7:1728–32. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2014.1620.
Malikova H, Kramska L, Vojtech Z, Sroubek J, Lukavsky J, Liscak R. Relationship between remnant hippocampus and amygdala and memory outcomes after stereotactic surgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2015;11:2927–33. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S95497.
Lee C-Y, Li H-T, Wu T, et al. Efficacy of limited hippocampal radiofrequency thermocoagulation for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurosurg. 2018; https://doi.org/10.3171/2018.4.JNS184.
Blume WT, Parrent AG, Kaibara M. Stereotactic amygdalohippocampotomy and mesial temporal spikes. Epilepsia. 1997;38:930–6.
Yang W-D, Yu Q, Zhang J-N, Shen C-H, Wang F-L, Cui L-Y, et al. [Stereotactic combined amygdala and hippocampus lesions for treatment of medial temporal lobe epilepsy]. Zhonghua Wai Ke Za Zhi. 2005;43:616–9. https://doi.org/10.3760/j.issn.0529-5815.2005.09.019.
Kameyama S, Shirozu H, Masuda H, Ito Y, Sonoda M, Akazawa K. MRI-guided stereotactic radiofrequency thermocoagulation for 100 hypothalamic hamartomas. J Neurosurg. 2016;124:1503–12.
Gollwitzer S, Valente I, Rodionov R, Scott C, Ritter LM, Wehner T, Hamer HM, Bartolomei F, Diehl B. Visual and semiautomated evaluation of epileptogenicity in focal cortical dysplasias—an intracranial EEG study. Epilepsy Behav. 2016;58:69–75.
Wagner J, Urbach H, Niehusmann P, von Lehe M, Elger CE, Wellmer J. Focal cortical dysplasia type IIb: completeness of cortical, not subcortical, resection is necessary for seizure freedom. Epilepsia. 2011;52:1418–24.
Cossu M, Fuschillo D, Casaceli G, Pelliccia V, Castana L, Mai R, et al. Stereoelectroencephalography-guided radiofrequency thermocoagulation in the epileptogenic zone: a retrospective study on 89 cases. J Neurosurg. 2015;123:1358–67. https://doi.org/10.3171/2014.12.JNS141968.
Schmitt FC, Voges J, Buentjen L, Woermann F, Pannek HW, Skalej M, Heinze HJ, Ebner A. Radiofrequency lesioning for epileptogenic periventricular nodular heterotopia: a rational approach. Epilepsia. 2011;52:101–5.
Grewal SS, Tatum WO. Laser thermal ablation in epilepsy. Expert Rev Neurother. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2019.1650642.
Heppner F. Experiences with the CO2 laser in surgery of the nervous system. Zentralbl Neurochir. 1979;40:297–301, 303–4.
Rossomoff HL, Carroll F. Reaction of neoplasm and brain to laser. Arch Neurol. 1966;14(2):143–8.
Ryan RW, Spetzler RF, Preul MC. Aura of technology and the cutting edge: a history of lasers in neurosurgery. Neurosurg Focus. 2009;27(3):E6.
Stellar SPT, Bredemeier HC. Lasers in surgery. In: Wolbarsht ML, editor. Laser applications in medicine and biology, vol. 2. New York: Springer; 1974. p. 241–93.
Curry DJ, Gowda A, McNichols RJ, Wilfong AA. MR-guided stereotactic laser ablation of epileptogenic foci in children. Epilepsy Behav. 2012;24:408–14.
Karsy M, Guan J, Ducis K, Bollo RJ. Emerging surgical therapies in the treatment of pediatric epilepsy. Transl Pediatr. 2016;5:67–78.
Kelly PJ, Sharbrough FW, Kall BA, Goerss SJ. Magnetic resonance imaging-based computer-assisted stereotactic resection of the hippocampus and amygdala in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Mayo Clin Proc. 1987;62:103–8.
Lewis EC, Weil AG, Duchowny M, Bhatia S, Ragheb J, Miller I. MR-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy for pediatric drug-resistant lesional epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2015;56:1590–8.
Sugiyama K, Sakai T, Fujishima I, Ryu H, Uemura K, Yokoyama T. Stereotactic interstitial laser-hyperthermia using Nd-YAG laser. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1990;55:501–5.
Tovar-Spinoza Z, Carter D, Ferrone D, Eksioglu Y, Huckins S. The use of MRI-guided laser-induced thermal ablation for epilepsy. Childs Nerv Syst. 2013;29:2089–94.
Buckley RT, Wang AC, Miller JW, Novotny EJ, Ojemann JG. Stereotactic laser ablation for hypothalamic and deep intraventricular lesions. Neurosurg Focus. 2016;41:E10. https://doi.org/10.3171/2016.7.FOCUS16236.
Buckley R, Estronza-Ojeda S, Ojemann JG. Laser ablation in pediatric epilepsy. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2016;27:69–78.
Bettag M, Ulrich F, Schober R, Fürst G, Langen KJ, Sabel M, et al. Stereotactic laser therapy in cerebral gliomas. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien). 1991;52:81–3.
Fujishima I, Ryu H, Uemura K, Sakai T, Nakajima S, Sugiyama K, et al. Experimental study of deep brain radiation with the Nd-YAG laser: a possible new treatment for deep-seated brain tumor. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 1986;26:621–7.
Kahn T, Bettag M, Ulrich F, Schwarzmaier HJ, Schober R, Furst G, et al. MRI-guided laser-induced interstitial thermotherapy of cerebral neoplasms. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1994;18:519–32.
Medvid R, Ruiz A, Komotar RJ, Jagid JR, Ivan ME, Quencer RM, et al. Current applications of MRI-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy in the treatment of brain neoplasms and epilepsy: a radiologic and neurosurgical overview. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2015;36:1998–2006.
Sakai T, Fujishima I, Sugiyama K, Ryu H, Uemura K. Interstitial laserthermia in neurosurgery. J Clin Laser Med Surg. 1992;10:37–40.
Salem U, Kumar VA, Madewell JE, et al. Neurosurgical applications of MRI guided laser interstitial thermal therapy (LITT). Cancer Imaging. 2019;19:65. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40644-019-0250-4.
Patel P, Patel NV, Danish SF. Intracranial MR-guided laser-induced thermal therapy: single-center experience with the visualase thermal therapy system. J Neurosurg. 2016;125:853–60.
Sundararajan SH, Belani P, Danish S, Keller I. Early MRI characteristics after MRI-guided laser-assisted cingulotomy for intractable pain control. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2015;36:1283–7.
Li K, Vakharia VN, Sparks R, et al. Optimizing trajectories for cranial laser interstitial thermal therapy using computer-assisted planning: a machine learning approach. Neurotherapeutics. 2019;16(2):182–91.
Shimamoto S, Wu C, Sperling MR. Laser interstitial thermal therapy in drug-resistant epilepsy. Curr Opin Neurol. 2019;32(2):237–45. https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO. PMID:30694919
LaRiviere MJ, Gross RE. Stereotactic laser ablation for medically intractable epilepsy: the next generation of minimally invasive epilepsy surgery. Front Surg. 2016; https://doi.org/10.3389/fsurg.2016.00064.
Gross RE, Stern MA, Willie JT, Fasano RE, Saindane AM, Soares BP, et al. Stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampotomy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2018;83:575–87.
Hoppe C, Witt J-A, Helmstaedter C, et al. Laser interstitial thermotherapy (LiTT) in epilepsy surgery. Seizure. 2017;48:45–52.
Hoppe C, Witt J-A, Helmstaedter C, Gasser T, Vatter H, Elger C-E. Stereotaktische Laserthermokoagulation in der Epilepsiechirurgie. Nervenarzt. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00115-017-0283-5.
Hoppe C, Helmstaedter C. Laser interstitial thermotherapy (LiTT) in pediatric epilepsy surgery. Seizure. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2017.04.002.
Abel TJ, Kawasaki H, Barrash J. Naming and recognition after laser amygdalohippocampotomy: is the hippocampus involved? Epilepsia. 2015;56:1317.
Attiah MA, Paulo DL, Danish SF, Stein SC, Mani R. Anterior temporal lobectomy compared with laser thermal hippocampectomy for mesial temporal epilepsy: a threshold analysis study. Epilepsy Res. 2015;115:1–7.
Drane DL, Loring DW, Voets NL, Price M, Ojemann JG, Willie JT, et al. Better object recognition and naming outcome with MRI-guided stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampotomy for temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2015;56:101–13.
Dredla BK, Lucas JA, Wharen RE, Tatum WO. Neurocognitive outcome following stereotactic laser ablation in two patients with MRI-/PET+ mTLE. Epilepsy Behav. 2016;56:44–7.
Gross RE, Mahmoudi B, Riley JP. Less is more: novel less-invasive surgical techniques for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy that minimize cognitive impairment. Curr Opin Neurol. 2015;28:182–91.
Gross RE, Willie JT, Drane DL. The role of stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampotomy in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2016;27:37–50.
Jobst BC. Equal but different? MRI-guided stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampectomy and traditional temporal lobe surgery. Epilepsy Curr. 2015;15:250–2.
Kang JY, Wu C, Tracy J, Lorenzo M, Evans J, Nei M, et al. Laser interstitial thermal therapy for medically intractable mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2016;57:325–34.
Meng Y, Suppiah S, Mansouri A. Journal club: real-time magnetic resonance-guided stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampotomy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosurgery. 2015;77:307–9.
Waseem H, Osborn KE, Schoenberg MR, Kelley V, Bozorg A, Cabello D, et al. Laser ablation therapy: an alternative treatment for medically resistant mesial temporal lobe epilepsy after age 50. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;51:152–7.
Willie JT, Laxpati NG, Drane DL, Gowda A, Appin C, Hao C, et al. Real-time magnetic resonance-guided stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampotomy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosurgery. 2014;74:569–84; discussion 584.
Jermakowicz WJ, Kanner AM, Sur S, Bermudez C, D’Haese PF, Kolcun JP, et al. Laser thermal ablation for mesiotemporal epilepsy: analysis of ablation volumes and trajectories. Epilepsia. 2017;58(5):801–10.
Youngerman BE, Oh JY, Anbarasan D, et al. Laser ablation is effective for temporal lobe epilepsy with and without mesial temporal sclerosis if hippocampal seizure onsets are localized by stereoelectroencephalography. Epilepsia. 2018;59:595–606.
Donos C, Breier J, Friedman E, et al. Laser ablation for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: surgical and cognitive outcomes with and without mesial temporal sclerosis. Epilepsia. 2018;59:1421–32.
Grewal SS, Zimmerman RS, Worrell G, et al. Laser ablation for mesial temporal epilepsy: a multi-site, single institutional series. J Neurosurg. 2018; https://doi.org/10.3171/2018.2.JNS171873.
Grewal SS, Alvi MA, Lu VM, et al. Magnetic resonance-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy versus stereotactic radiosurgery for medically intractable temporal lobe epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of seizure outcomes and complications. World Neurosurg. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2018.08.227.
Tao JX, Wu S, Lacy M, Rose S, Issa NP, Yang CW, et al. Stereotactic EEG-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2018;89:542–8.
Vakharia VN, Sparks R, Kuo L, et al. Automated trajectory planning for laser interstitial thermal therapy (LiTT) in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2018;59(4):814–24.
Wu C, Jermakovicz WJ, Chakravorti S, et al. Effects of surgical targeting in laser interstitial thermal therapy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: a multicenter study of 234 patients. Epilepsia. 2019;60(6):1171–83.
Radhakrishnan A, Menon R, Thomas SV, Abraham M, Vilanilam G, Kesavadas C, et al. “Time is Brain”—how early should surgery be done in drug-resistant TLE? Acta Neurol Scand. 2018;138:531–40.
Sun Z, Zuo H, Yuan D, Sun Y, Zhang K, Cui Z, et al. Predictors of prognosis in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy after anterior temporal lobectomy. Exp Ther Med. 2015;10:1896–902.
Ellis JA, Mejia Munne JC, Wang SH, McBrian DK, Akman CI, Feldstein NA, et al. Staged laser interstitial thermal therapy and topectomy for complete obliteration of complex focal cortical dysplasias. J Clin Neurosci. 2016;31:224–8.
Sperling MR, Gross RE, Alvarez GE, et al. Stereotactic laser ablation for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: a prospective, multicenter, single‐arm study. Epilepsia. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.16529.
Drane DL. MRI-guided stereotactic laser ablation for epilepsy surgery: promising preliminary results for cognitive outcome. Epilepsy Res. 2018;142:170–5.
Brandmeir N, Acharya V, Sather M. Robot assisted stereotactic laser ablation for a radiosurgery resistant hypothalamic hamartoma. Cureus. 2016;8:e581.
Burrows AM, Marsh WR, Worrell G, Woodrum DA, Pollock BE, Gorny KR, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy for previously treated hypothalamic hamartomas. Neurosurg Focus. 2016;41:E8.
Rolston JD, Chang EF. Stereotactic laser ablation for hypothalamic hamartoma. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2016;27:59–67.
Wilfong AA, Curry DJ. Hypothalamic hamartomas: optimal approach to clinical evaluation and diagnosis. Epilepsia. 2013;54(Suppl. 9):109–14.
Wright JM, Staudt MD, Alonso A, et al. A novel use of the NeuroBlate SideFire probe for minimally invasive disconnection of a hypothalamic hamartoma in a child with gelastic seizures. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2018;21:302–7.
Zubkov S, Del Bene VA, MacAllister WS, Shepherd TM. Disabling amnestic syndrome following stereotactic laser ablation of a hypothalamic hamartoma in a patient with a prior temporal lobectomy. Epilepsy Behav Case Rep. 2015;4:60–2.
Curry DJ, Raskin J, Ali I, Wilfong AA. MR-guided laser ablation for the treatment of hypothalamic hamartomas. Epilepsy Res. 2018;142:131–4.
Xu DS, Chen T, Hlubek RJ, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy for the treatment of hypothalamic hamartomas: a retrospective review. Neurosurgery. 2018;83:1183–92.
Boerwinkle VL, Foldes ST, Torrisi SJ, et al. Subcentimeter epilepsy surgery targets by resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging can improve outcomes in hypothalamic hamartoma. Epilepsia. 2018;59(12):2284–95.
Clarke DF, Tindall K, Lee M, Patel B. Bilateral occipital dysplasia, seizure identification, and ablation: a novel surgical technique. Epileptic Disord. 2014;16:238–43.
Devine IM, Burrell CJ, Shih JJ. Curative laser thermoablation of epilepsy secondary to bottom-of-sulcus dysplasia near eloquent cortex. Seizure. 2016;34:35–7.
Thompson SA, Kalamangalam GP, Tandon N. Intracranial evaluation and laser ablation for epilepsy with periventricular nodular heterotopia. Seizure. 2016;41:211–6.
Dadey DY, Kamath AA, Leuthardt EC, Smyth MD. Laser interstitial thermal therapy for subependymal giant cell astrocytoma: technical case report. Neurosurg Focus. 2016;41:E9.
McCracken DJ, Willie J, Fernald BA, Saindane AM, Drane DL, Barrow DL, et al. Magnetic resonance thermometry-guided stereotactic laser ablation of cavernous malformations in drug-resistant epilepsy: imaging and clinical results. Oper Neurosurg. 2016;12:39–48.
Hawasli AH, Bagade S, Shimony JS, Miller-Thomas M, Leuthardt EC. Magnetic resonance imaging-guided focused laser interstitial thermal therapy for intracranial lesions: single-institution series. Neurosurgery. 2013;73:1007–17.
Hawasli AH, Bandt SK, Hogan RE, Werner N, Leuthardt EC. Laser ablation as treatment strategy for medically refractory dominant insular epilepsy: therapeutic and functional considerations. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2014;92:397–404.
Cobourn K, Fayed I, Keating RF, Oluigbo CO. Early outcomes of stereoelectroencephalography followed by MR-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy: a paradigm for minimally invasive epilepsy surgery. Neurosurg Focus. 2018;45:1–9.
Jolesz FA, Hynynen K, McDannold N, Tempany C. MR imaging-controlled focused ultrasound ablation: a noninvasive image-guided surgery. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am. 2005;13(3):545–60.
McDannold N, Clement GT, Black P, Jolesz F, Hynynen K. Transcranial magnetic resonance imaging-guided focused ultrasound surgery of brain tumors: initial findings in 3 patients. Neurosurgery. 2010;66:323–32.
Elias WJ, Huss D, Voss T, Loomba J, Khaled M, Zadicario E, et al. A pilot study of focused ultrasound thalamotomy for essential tremor. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:640–8.
Krishna V, Sammartino F, Cosgrove R, et al. Predictors of outcomes after focused ultrasound thalamotomy. Neurosurgery. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyz417.
Martin E, Jeanmonod D, Morel A, Zadicario E, Werner B. High-intensity focused ultrasound for noninvasive functional neurosurgery. Ann Neurol. 2009;66:858–61.
McDonell J, Patel N, Fischer G, et al. Robotic assisted MRI-guided interventional Interstitial MR guided focused ultrasound ablation in a swine model. Neurosurgery. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyy266.
Parker WE, Weidman EK, Chazen JL, et al. Magnetic resonance–guided focused ultrasound for ablation of mesial temporal epilepsy circuits: modeling and theoretical feasibility of a novel noninvasive approach. J Neurosurg. 2019; https://doi.org/10.3171/2019.4.JNS182694.
Ranjan M, Boutet A, Bhatia S, et al. Neuromodulation beyond neurostimulation for epilepsy: scope for focused ultrasound. Expert Rev Neurother. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2019.1635013.
Foley JL, Little JW, Vaezy S. Effects of high-intensity focused ultrasound on nerve conduction. Muscle Nerve. 2008;37(2):241–50.
Lipsman N, Meng Y, Bethune AJ, et al. Blood-brain barrier opening in Alzheimer’s disease using MR-guided focused ultrasound. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):2336.
Leksell L. The stereotactic method and radiosurgery of the brain. Acta Chir Scand. 1951;102:316–9.
Leksell L. Stereotactic radiosurgery in trigeminal neuralgia. Acta Chir Scand. 1971;137:311–4.
Leksell L. Stereotaxis and radiosurgery. An operative system. Springfield, IL: Thomas CC; 1971.
Talairach J, Bancaud J, Szikla G, et al. Approche nouvelle de la neurochirurgie de l´épilepsie. Méthodologie stéréotaxique et résultants thérapeutiques. Neurochirurgie. 1974;20:92–8.
Heikkinen ER, Konnov B, Melnikow L. Relief of epilepsy by radiosurgery of cerebral arteriovenous malformations. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1989;53:157–66.
Rogers L, Morris H, Lupica K. Effect of cranial irradiation on seizure frequency in adults with low-grad astrocytoma and medically intractable epilepsy. Neurology. 1993;43:1599–601.
Rossi G, Scerrati M, Roselli R. Epileptogenic cerebral low grade tumors: effect of interstitial stereotactic irradiation on seizures. Appl Neurophysiol. 1985;48:127–32.
Steiner L, Lindquist C, Adler J, Torner J, Alves W, Steiner M. Clinical outcome of radiosurgery for cerebral arteriovenous malformations. J Neurosurg. 1992;77:1–8.
Lindquist C, Kilström L, Hellstrand E. Functional neurosurgery—a future for the Gamma Knife? Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1991;57:72–81.
Whang CJ, Kwon Y. Long-term follow-up of stereotactic Gamma Knife radiosurgery in epilepsy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1996;66:349–56.
Barcia Salorio JL, Roldan P, Hernandez G, et al. Radiosurgery treatment of epilepsy. Appl Neurophysiol. 1985;48:400–3.
Gaffey CT, Monotoya V, Lyman J, et al. Restriction of the spread of epileptic discharges in cats by mean of Bragg Peak intracranial irradiation. Int J Appl Radiat Isot. 1981;32:779–87.
Chen ZF, Kamiryo T, Henson SL, et al. Anticonvulsant effects of gamma surgery in a model of chronic spontaneous limbic epilepsy in rats. J Neurosurg. 2000;94:270–80.
Maesawa S, Kondziolka D, Dixon C, et al. Subnecrotic stereotactic radiosurgery controlling epilepsy produced by kainic acid injection in rats. J Neurosurg. 2000;93:1033–40.
Mori Y, Kondziolka D, Balzer J, et al. Effects of stereotactic radiosurgery on an animal model of hippocampal epilepsy. Neurosurgery. 2000;46:157–65.
Boström JP, Delev D, Quesada C, Widman G, Vatter H, Elger CE, Surges R. Low-dose radiosurgery or hypofractionated stereotactic radiotherapy as treatment option in refractory epilepsy due to epileptogenic lesions in eloquent areas—preliminary report of feasibility and safety. Seizure. 2016;36:57–62.
Quigg M, Rolston J, Barbaro NM. Radiosurgery for epilepsy: clinical experience and potential antiepileptic mechanisms. Epilepsia. 2012;53(1):7–15.
Régis J, Carron R, Park M. Is radiosurgery a neuromodulation therapy? A 2009 Fabrikant award lecture. J Neurooncol. 2010;98(2):155–62.
Barbaro NM, Quigg M, Broshek DK, Ward MM, Lamborn KR, Laxer KD, Larson DA, Dillon W, Verhey L, Garcia P, Steiner L, Heck C, Kondziolka D, Beach R, Olivero W, Witt TC, Salanova V, Goodman R. A multicenter, prospective pilot study of gamma knife radiosurgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: seizure response, adverse events, and verbal memory. Ann Neurol. 2009;65:167–75. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.21558.
Barbaro NM, Quigg M, Ward MM, et al. Radiosurgery versus open surgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: The randomized, controlled ROSE trial. Epilepsia. 2018;59(6):1198–207.
Feng E-S, Sui C-B, Wang T-X, Sun G-L. Stereotactic radiosurgery for the treatment of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Acta Neurol Scand. 2016;134(6):442–51.
Régis J, Rey M, Bartolomei F, et al. Gamma knife surgery in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: a prospective multicenter study. Epilepsia. 2004;45:504–15.
Chang EF, Quigg M, Oh MC, Dillon WP, Ward MM, Laxer KD, Broshek DK, Barbaro NM. Predictors of efficacy after stereotactic radiosurgery for medial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology. 2010;74:165–72. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c9185d.
Quigg M, Broshek DK, Barbaro NM, Ward MM, Laxer KD, Yan G, et al. Neuropsychological outcomes after Gamma Knife radiosurgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: a prospective multicenter study. Epilepsia. 2011;52:909–16.
Régis J, Bartolomei F, Chauvel P. Radiosurgery. In: Baltuch GH, Villemure J-G, editors. Operative techniques in epilepsy surgery. New York: Thieme; 2009. p. 187–96.
Rheims S, Didelot A, Guénot M, Régis J, Ryvlin P. Subcontinuous epileptiform activity after failed hippocampal radiosurgery. Epilepsia. 2011;52:1425–9.
Arita K, Kurusi K, Iida K, Hanaya R, Akimitsu T, Hibino S, Pant B, Hamasaki M, Shinagawa S. Subsidence of seizure induced by stereotactic radiation in a patient with hypothalamic hamartoma. J Neurosurg. 1998;89:645–8.
Régis J, Bartolomei F, de Toffol B, et al. Gamma knife surgery for epilepsy related to hypothalamic hamartomas. Neurosurgery. 2000;47:1343–51.
Régis J, Bartolomei F, Rey M, Hayashi M, Chauvel P, Peragut J. Gamma knife surgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurosurg. 2000;93:141–6.
Régis J, Hayashi M, Eupierre LP, et al. Gamma knife surgery for epilepsy related to hypothalamic hamartomas. Acta Neurochir. 2004;91(Suppl):33–50.
Schulze-Bonhage A, Homberg V, Trippel M, et al. Interstitial radiosurgery in the treatment of gelastic epilepsy due to hypothalamic hamartomas. Neurology. 2004;62:644–7.
Gazzola DM, Balcer LJ, French JA. Seizure-free outcome in randomized add-on trials of the new antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia. 2007;48:1303–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2007.01136.x.
Kwan P, Brodie MJ. Early identification of refractory epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:314–9. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200002033420503.
Kwan P, Sperling MR. Refractory seizures: try additional antiepileptic drugs (after two have failed) or go directly to early surgery evaluation? Epilepsia. 2009;50(Suppl 8):57–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02237.x.
Thom M, Mathern GW, Cross JH, Bertram EH. Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: how do we improve surgical outcome? Ann Neurol. 2010;68:424–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.22142.
Wiebe S, Blume WT, Girvin JP, Eliasziw M. A randomized, controlled trial of surgery for temporal-lobe epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:311–8. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200108023450501.
Hauser WA. Status epilepticus: epidemiologic considerations. Neurology. 1990;40:9–13.
Dibué-Adjeia M, Kamp MA, Vonck K. 30 years of vagus nerve stimulation trials in epilepsy: do we need neuromodulation-specific trial designs? Epilepsy Res. 2019;153:71–5.
Suthana N, Haneef Z, Stern J, et al. Memory enhancement and deep-brain stimulation of the entorhinal area. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:502–10.
Elger CE, Mormann F. Seizure prediction and documentation—two important problems. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12:531–2.
Morris GL, Gloss D, Buchhalter J, Mack KJ, Nichels K, Harden C. Evidence-based guidline update: vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy. Neurology. 2013;81:1453–9.
Morrell M, Hirsch L, Bergey G, Barkley G, Wharen R, Murro A, Fisch B, Rossi M, Labar D, Duckrow R, Sirven J, Drazkowski J, Worrell G, Gwinn R. Long-term safety and efficacy of the RNSTM system in adults with medically intractable partial onset seizures. Epilepsia. 2008;49:480.
Grinenko O, Li J, Mosher JC, Wang IZ, Bulacio JC, Gonzalez-Martinez J, Nair D, Najm I, Leahy RM, Chauvel P. A fingerprint of the epileptogenic zone in human epilepsies. Brain. 2018;141(1):117–31.
Wolf A, Naylor K, Tam M. Risk of radiation-associated intracranial malignancy after stereotactic radiosurgery: a retrospective, multicentre, cohort study. Lancet Oncol. 2019;20(1):159–64.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Zentner, J. (2020). Non-resective Epilepsy Surgery. In: Surgical Treatment of Epilepsies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48748-5_14
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48748-5_14
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-48747-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-48748-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)