Abstract
This chapter reconstructs the formation of the dominant creation science organisation, Answers in Genesis, while tracing the origin of the intelligent design movement to its roots outside the creation science community. Huskinson demonstrates that these two movements have separate formations and trajectories, and have competed with each other for shares of the evangelical market, in a tussle for the survival of the fittest. By describing their movements in parallel, he shows how the common public perception, in which these movements have been semi-cooperative, underestimates the extent to which they have been in competition. While the most recent popular historical accounts of the intelligent design movement end just after the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover trial, in which a federal court found intelligent design to be religious in nature and inappropriate for public school science courses, Huskinson considers the ongoing work of the intelligent design community, and their efforts to recover following the Kitzmiller trial.
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Notes
- 1.
Ken Ham, The Lie: Evolution, (Green Forest: Master Books, 1987).
- 2.
Ibid., 1.
- 3.
Ibid., 6.
- 4.
“Why Another Creation Organization?” Prayer News by Creation Science Ministries, Volume 1, no. 2, June/July 1994, 1–3.
- 5.
Based on data taken from IRS Form 990s from Institute for Creation Research and Answers in Genesis for fiscal years 1997–2014, available from ProPublica Nonprofit Explorer at https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/.
- 6.
Christopher P. Toumey, God’s Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 11.
- 7.
“The History of Answers in Genesis through July 2017,” Answers in Genesis, July 2017, https://answersingenesis.org/about/history/.
- 8.
The same policy was instituted at the Bible Science Association, as their “Creation Moments” radio program proved a more well-known brand than the organisation’s official name. The organisation is currently called Creation Moments, Inc.
- 9.
Data taken from IRS Form 990 from Institute for Creation Research for fiscal years 1997–2015, available from http://www.ProPublica.org.
- 10.
Answers in Genesis! By Creation Science Ministries, Volume 2, no. 1 (February 1995).
- 11.
Answers in Genesis! By Creation Science Ministries, Volume 2, no. 2 (March 1995).
- 12.
Answers in Genesis, Volume 3, no. 4, April 1996, 5.
- 13.
Ken Ham, Answers in Genesis monthly letter to supporters, January 2000.
- 14.
Examples include a warning against the Mysteries of the Bible video series, alleging the videos were not “true to the authority of God’s Word” from Answers in Genesis, Volume 3, no. 8, August 1996, 5, and a warning against a children’s comic book, Creation: A Scientist Looks Back at How the Earth Began by Dr. Hugh Ross of Reasons to Believe, from Answers in Genesis, Volume 5, no. 2, February 1998, 5. The comic advocated for an old earth, a position Answers in Genesis has claimed is heretical.
- 15.
“Life Insurance Changes Coming,” Answers in Genesis, Volume 2, no. 10, November 1995, 4.
- 16.
“Save Money!” Answers in Genesis, Volume 4, no. 1, January 1997, 9.
- 17.
Ibid., 10.
- 18.
Kevin Eigelbach, “Is Answers in Genesis’ tendency to hire family members problematic?” WCPO Cincinnati (Cincinnati, OH), December 5, 2015, http://www.wcpo.com/news/insider/answers-in-genesis-founder-ken-ham-employes-several-family-members-in-his-non-profit-organzation.
- 19.
In 2015 the comedian John Oliver produced an exposé on the long-standing practice of televangelists making “prosperity doctrine” donation appeals and, to demonstrate the legality of such practices ad absurdum, formed his own church, Our Lady of Perpetual Exemption, to solicit donations. Oliver donated all contributions to Doctors Without Borders. See “Televangelists: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver (HBO),” YouTube video, 20:05, posted by “LastWeekTonight,” August 16, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7y1xJAVZxXg.
- 20.
“Ken Ham Available for Radio Talk Shows,” Prayer News by Creation Science Ministries, Volume 1, no. 6, December 1993, 3.
- 21.
“Why Another Creation Organisation,” Prayer News, 1–3.
- 22.
“800 Feet Down,” Answers in Genesis, Volume 4, no. 3, March 1997, 1–3.
- 23.
Andy Mead, “Rezoning Denied for Creationist Museum,” The Kentucky Post (Covington, KY), December 11, 1996, A1.
- 24.
Data taken from IRS Form 990s from Institute for Creation Research and Answers in Genesis for fiscal years 1997–2014, available from http://www.ProPublica.org.
- 25.
Steven Andrew, “Know Your Creationists: Know Your Allies,” Daily Kos, March 11, 2006, https://www.dailykos.com/stories/2006/3/11/193288/-.
- 26.
Percival W. Davis and Dean H. Kenyon, Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins, (Richardson: Foundation for Thought and Ethics, 1989).
- 27.
Steven Andrew, “Know Your Creationists.” See also Charles B. Thaxton, Walter L. Bradley, and Roger L. Olson, The Mystery of Life’s Origin: Reassessing Current Theories, (Dallas: Lewis and Stanley, 1984).
- 28.
Dean H. Kenyon, “Affidavit of Dr. Dean H. Kenyon in Biology and Biochemistry,” Edwards v. Aguillard 482 U.S. 578 (1987), Section D, Paragraph 9.
- 29.
Henry Morris, The Long War Against God: The History and Impact of the Creation/Evolution Conflict (Green Forest: Master Books, 1989), 106.
- 30.
Henry M. Morris, “A Young-Earth Creationist Bibliography,” True.Origin Archive, November 1995, https://www.trueorigin.org/imp-269a.php. See also Wayne Frair and Percival Davis, A Case for Creation (Chicago: Moody Press, 1983).
- 31.
Ibid.
- 32.
“Deposition of Dr. Charles Thaxton, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District,” 400 F. Supp. 2d 707, M.D. Pa., July 19, 2005.
- 33.
Steven Andrew, “Know Your Creationists.” See also Philip E. Johnson, Darwin on Trial, (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1991).
- 34.
See Michael Denton, Evolution: A Theory in Crisis, (London: Burnett Books, 1985), and Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker, (Essex: Longman Scientific and Technical, 1986).
- 35.
James M. Kushiner, “Berkeley’s Radical: An Interview with Phillip E. Johnson,” Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity, November 2000, http://touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=15-05-037-i.
- 36.
Tom Frame, Evolution in the Antipodes: Charles Darwin and Australia, (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2009), 291.
- 37.
“Darwinism: Scientific Inference or Philosophical Preference?” Conference, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, March 26–28, 1992. Ruse would become a perennial figure at Intelligent Design debates throughout the 1990s, and even collaborated on written works debating the merits of ID. See William A. Dembski and Michael Ruse, Debating Design: From Darwin to DNA (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
- 38.
Barbara Forrest and Paul R. Gross, Creationism’s Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 17–18.
- 39.
Nicholas J. Matzke, “Design on Trial in Dover, Pennsylvania,” National Center for Science Education, 2005, https://ncse.com/library-resource/design-trial-dover-pennsylvania.
- 40.
Jodi Wilgoren, “Politicized Scholars Put Evolution on the Defensive,” New York Times, August 21, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/21/us/politicized-scholars-put-evolution-on-the-defensive.html. See also Stephen C. Meyer, “Open Debate on Life’s Origins,” Wall Street Journal, December 6, 1993. Reprint available at Access Research Network, http://www.arn.org/docs/meyer/sm_opendebatelifesorigins.htm.
- 41.
Roger Downey, “Discovery’s Creation,” Seattle Weekly News, October 9, 2006, http://archive.seattleweekly.com/2006-02-01/news/discovery-s-creation/.
- 42.
Ibid. It should be noted that Ahmanson resigned from Rushdooney’s Chalcedon Foundation in 1996, attempting to distance himself from Christian Reconstruction, although he still advocated for establishing an American legal system built on biblical law. Ahmanson would go on to donate millions more dollars to the Discovery Institute—see Max Blumenthal, “Avenging Angel of the Religious Right,” Salon, January 6, 2004, https://www.salon.com/2004/01/06/ahmanson/.
- 43.
Downey, “Discovery’s Creation.”
- 44.
“Major grants help establish Center for Renewal of Science and Culture,” Discovery Institute Press Release, August 10, 1996. Accessed using Internet Archive Wayback Machine at https://web.archive.org/web/19961103063611/http://www.discovery.org/center.html.
- 45.
“The Wedge,” Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture—Discovery Institute, c. 1998, accessed at http://www.antievolution.org/features/wedge.pdf.
- 46.
Ibid., 5.
- 47.
See David K. DeWolf, Stephen C. Meyer, and Mark E. DeForrest, “Teaching the Controversy: Darwinism, Design, and the Public School Science Curriculum,” Foundation for Thought and Ethics, October 1, 1999.
- 48.
John E. Jones, “Memorandum of Opinion,” Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, 400 F. Supp. 2d 707 (W.D. Pa. 2005), pages 102–103.
- 49.
“Kitzmiller v. Dover,” ACLU Pennsylvania, https://www.aclupa.org/our-work/legal/legaldocket/intelligentdesigncase/.
- 50.
During the trial, Barbara Forrest appeared as an expert witness for the plaintiffs, citing Discovery Institute fellow Paul Nelson’s admission from an interview in the July/August 2004 edition of Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity that “Easily the biggest challenge facing the ID community is to develop a full-fledged theory of biological design. We don’t have such a theory right now, and that’s a real problem. Without a theory, it’s very hard to know where to direct your research focus. Right now, we’ve got a bag of powerful intuitions, and a handful of notions such as ‘irreducible complexity’ and ‘specified complexity’—but, as yet, no general theory of biological design.”
- 51.
“Missing Link Discovered!” National Center for Science Education (Oakland, CA), November 7, 2005, accessed August 10, 2016, https://web.archive.org/web/20071107040048/http://www2.ncseweb.org/wp/?p=80.
- 52.
John E. Jones, “Memorandum of Opinion,” 105.
- 53.
For example, see Helen Thompson, “Tennessee ‘monkey-bill’ becomes law,” Nature, April 11, 2012, https://www.nature.com/news/tennessee-monkey-bill-becomes-law-1.10423.
- 54.
Robert Luhn, “Anti-Evolution Legislation Scorecard: 2011,” National Center for Science Education, April 8, 2011, https://ncse.com/evolution/antievolution-legislation-scorecard.
- 55.
Celeste Biever, “The God Lab,” New Scientist 192, no. 2582, December 2006, 10.
- 56.
Bruce Chapman, “The State of Scientific Research on Intelligent Design,” Evolution News and Science Today, October 2, 2006, https://evolutionnews.org/2006/10/the_state_of_scientific_resear/.
- 57.
Biever, “The God Lab,” 8.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Ibid.
- 60.
“Science & Human Origins: How accurate are current models used in population genetics?” YouTube video, 2:49, posted by “DiscoveryInstitute,” December 14, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7tuZIxDxkxI&t=30s, 0:31.
- 61.
- 62.
Casey Johnston, “Intelligent design think tank’s ‘institute’ is a Shutterstock image,” Ars Technica, December 18, 2012, https://arstechnica.com/science/2012/12/inteliigent-design-think-tanks-institute-is-a-shutterstock-image/.
- 63.
William Dembski and Jonathan Wells, The Design of Life: Discovering Signs of Intelligence in Biological Systems, (Richardson: Foundation for Thought and Ethics, 2007).
- 64.
Dean Kenyon, editorial review for The Design of Life: Discovering Signs of Intelligence in Biological Systems, https://www.amazon.com/Design-Life-Discovering-Intelligence-Biological/dp/0980021308.
- 65.
- 66.
See Mark Looy, “Is It Over After Dover?” Answers in Genesis, November 14, 2007, https://answersingenesis.org/reviews/tv/is-it-over-after-dover/.
- 67.
“A brief chronology of events,” Creation Ministries International, May 17, 2008, http://www.creationontheweb.com/images/pdfs/dispute/Chronological_orderSHORT.pdf. Accessed using Internet Archive Wayback Machine at http://web.archive.org/web/20080517012418/http://www.creationontheweb.com/images/pdfs/dispute/Chronological_orderSHORT.pdf.
- 68.
Ibid., 2.
- 69.
Ibid., 3.
- 70.
Ibid., 6.
- 71.
“CMI-AIG: What’s the dispute all about?” Creation Ministries International, July 19, 2008, http://creationontheweb.com/dispute. Accessed using Internet Archive Wayback Machine at http://web.archive.org/web/20080719181837/http://creationontheweb.com/dispute.
- 72.
Ibid.
- 73.
Response to correspondence between Mark Looy (Co-founder and Chief Communications Officer of AiG) and Creation subscriber, dated February 2008. Accessed using Internet Archive Wayback Machine at http://web.archive.org/web/20080719102717/http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/5666/.
- 74.
Ibid.
- 75.
Philip Bell, “Letter to CMI Supporters,” Creation on the Web, November 15, 2006, http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/4759/. Accessed using Internet Archive Wayback Machine at http://web.archive.org/web/20080706170701/http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/4759/.
- 76.
Statement of Claim 4690/07, Supreme Court of Brisbane, Queensland Courts, May 31, 2007.
- 77.
“Dispute Settled,” Creation Ministries International, April 11, 2009, http://creation.com:80/dispute-settled. Accessed using Internet Archive Wayback Machine at https://web.archive.org/web/20090411145214/http://creation.com:80/dispute-settled.
- 78.
Jim Bakker resigned from the company which owned the park in 1987 amid allegations of drugging and raping a former church secretary. He was convicted in 1988 of fraud and conspiracy for knowingly overselling more memberships to the park’s hotels than the hotels could accommodate, and profiting from the surplus.
- 79.
A small controversy arose when the Orange County Property Appraiser argued that the Holy Land Experience was a theme park and not a ministry. He alleged that the park owed back property taxes due to its profitability. The state legislature responded by passing a law in 2006 exempting theme parks which exhibit and interpret biblical texts from property taxes.
- 80.
- 81.
- 82.
Peter Slevin, “A Monument to Creation,” The Washington Post (Washington, DC), May 27, 2007, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/26/AR2007052600908.html.
- 83.
- 84.
Observation from field work conducted August 14–17, 2016.
- 85.
Based on data taken from IRS Form 990 for Answers in Genesis for fiscal years 1997–2014.
- 86.
“Museum pushes creationism,” Associated Press, in The Press-Courier (Oxnard, CA), September 20, 1992.
- 87.
- 88.
- 89.
Angela Carone, “Creation Museum Denied Membership by San Diego Museum Council,” KPBS (San Diego, CA), November 13, 2013.
- 90.
Henry M. Morris III, “Complete the Doing,” Acts and Facts 45, no. 8 (2016): 5.
- 91.
In the time between the writing of this book and its being edited for publication, ICR opened its Discovery Center in early September, 2019.
- 92.
This figure is for the entire park, including phase II construction, estimated to begin in 2018. Phase I construction costs were closer to $92 million.
- 93.
Ordinance Number 04-2013-665, “An Ordinance of the Grant County, Kentucky, Fiscal Court approving a local development area agreement relating to the establishment of a local development area tax increment financing district known as the Ark Encounter Local Development Area within the City of Williamstown, Kentucky,” issued April 2013. See also Lindsay Tucker, “Noah’s Ark rises in Kentucky, dinosaurs and all,” Newsweek, January 16, 2016, http://www.newsweek.com/2016/01/29/noahs-ark-kentucky-dinosaurs-416653.html.
- 94.
See Rob Brigham, “Creationist Ken Ham blames atheists and ‘fake news’ for failing Ark Encounter theme park,” Raw Story (Washington, DC), June 24, 2017, http://www.rawstory.com/2017/06/creationist-ken-ham-blames-atheists-and-fake-news-for-failing-ark-encounter-theme-park/.
- 95.
- 96.
Mary Meehan, “Massive ark attraction set to open in Northern Kentucky,” Lexington Herald Leader (Lexington, KY), June 26, 2016.
- 97.
Alain Sherter, “Visitors, protesters turn out for Ark Encounter opening in Grant County,” WKYT (Lexington, KY), July 7, 2016.
- 98.
Nick Wong, “Atheists Propose ‘Genocide and Incest Park’ To Counter Noah’s Ark Attraction: Nonbelievers in Kentucky see something wrong with celebrating this parable,” Huffington Post (New York, NY), March 18, 2016.
- 99.
- 100.
“Ark Encounter Makes Enormous Impact in First Year: Attraction Brings Economic Boon to the Region and Draws International Visitors,” Answers in Genesis, July 6, 2017, https://answersingenesis.org/about/press/2017/07/06/ark-encounter-makes-enormous-impact-in-first-year/.
- 101.
C. Britt Beemer, “Timing hurt Ark attendance,” Lexington Herald Leader (Lexington, KY), July 29, 2017.
- 102.
“Ark Encounter Tickets Now on Sale: New World Class Attraction to Open July 7, Offering Tickets ’40 Days and 40 Nights’ to Accommodate Expected Crowds,” Answers in Genesis, January 20, 2016, https://answersingenesis.org/ministry-news/ark-encounter/tickets-now-on-sale/.
- 103.
“Noah’s Ark theme park gets go-ahead in Kentucky,” Associated Press in The Herald Dispatch (Huntington, WV), May 20, 2011, http://www.herald-dispatch.com/news/recent_news/noah-s-ark-theme-park-gets-go-ahead-in-kentucky/article_de21b6ef-92b3-59c4-8d67-85c8783f3ce1.html.
- 104.
“Group opposes tax incentives for Noah’s Ark park,” Associated Press in WKYT (Lexington, KY), August 23, 2014, http://www.wkyt.com/home/headlines/Group-opposes-tax-incentives-for-Noahs-Ark-park-272415671.html.
- 105.
Tom Luftus, “Ark Park tax incentives worth up to $18M approved,” Courier-Journal (Louisville, KY), April 26, 2016, http://www.courier-journal.com/story/news/politics/ky-governor/2016/04/26/ark-park-tax-incentives-worth-up-18m-approved/83540204/.
- 106.
Erin Caproni, “Judge rules on Ark Encounter incentives,” Cincinnati Business Courier (Cincinnati, OH), January 26, 2016, https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/morning_call/2016/01/judge-rules-on-ark-encounter-incentives.html.
- 107.
Dylan Lovan, “Noah’s Ark job float your boat? Then you must be Christian,” Associated Press (New York, NY), April 14, 2016, https://apnews.com/f80fd80eddea41b2a00266ca91b36f92/noahs-ark-job-float-your-boat-then-you-must-be-christian.
- 108.
- 109.
Terence Cullen, “Local economy in Kentucky town that’s home to Noah’s Ark theme park is drowning,” New York Daily News, February 28, 2017, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/local-economy-home-noah-ark-theme-park-drowning-article-1.2985037.
- 110.
Ken Ham, “The Secularist Media War Against the Ark Continues,” Answers in Genesis, June 12, 2017, https://answersingenesis.org/ministry-news/ark-encounter/secularist-media-war-against-ark-continues/.
- 111.
Linda Blackford, “After state suspends tax break, Noah’s Ark park transfers land back to for-profit entity,” Lexington Herald Leader, July 24, 2017, http://www.kentucky.com/news/state/article163349603.html.
- 112.
Tom Demeropolis, “Will the Ark Encounter rain $4 billion on the region’s economy?” Cincinnati Business Courier, October 7, 2015, https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/morning_call/2015/10/will-the-ark-encounter-rain-4-billion-on-the.html.
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Huskinson, B.L. (2020). The Continuation of Creation Science and the Emergence of Intelligent Design. In: American Creationism, Creation Science, and Intelligent Design in the Evangelical Market. Christianities in the Trans-Atlantic World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45435-7_3
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