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Introduction

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American Creationism, Creation Science, and Intelligent Design in the Evangelical Market

Part of the book series: Christianities in the Trans-Atlantic World ((CTAW))

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Abstract

The introduction provides a starting point for unravelling the creation science and intelligent design timelines to offer a more coherent narrative for their co-existence as separate waves of a series of anti-evolution movements. It introduces the terminology used throughout the book, and provides a literature review of relevant work to date, including the legal, intellectual, and socio-cultural historical works that have informed the field. By opening with an in-depth discussion of the wide variety of interpretations regarding the Genesis creation narrative, Huskinson sets the stage for showcasing the diversity within the American evangelical market. Its brief background on anti-evolution movements up to the 1960s lays the groundwork for outlining four distinct anti-evolution movements in the United States, the last two of which the book focuses on, beginning with the rise of creation science.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Charles Darwin, Charles Darwin’s Beagle Diary, ed. R. D. Keynes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 447.

  2. 2.

    Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin (London: Penguin Group, 1991), 195.

  3. 3.

    Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (London: John Murray, 1859).

  4. 4.

    Peter Bowler, Monkey Trials and Gorilla Sermons (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 72. See also Robert Chambers, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (London: John Churchill, 1844).

  5. 5.

    Ibid., 106. See also David Livingstone, Darwin’s Forgotten Defenders (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1987), 49.

  6. 6.

    Ronald L. Numbers, Darwinism Comes to America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 50.

  7. 7.

    Harold W. Clark, Back to Creationism (Angwin: Pacific Union College Press, 1929).

  8. 8.

    Ronald L. Numbers, The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 106.

  9. 9.

    Henry Morris and John C. Whitcomb, Jr., The Genesis Flood: The Biblical Record and Its Scientific Implications (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing, 1961).

  10. 10.

    Henry Morris, The Long War Against God: The History and Impact of the Creation/Evolution Conflict (Green Forest: Master Books, 1989), 106.

  11. 11.

    Duane Gish, debate hosted by Jim Bleikamp, Night Talk, 610 WTVN AM, January 11, 1990.

  12. 12.

    Numbers, The Creationists, 103–104.

  13. 13.

    For a detailed discussion on the emergence of Biblical literalism, see Andrew Crome, The Restoration of the Jews: Early Modern Hermeneutics, Eschatology, and National Identity in the Works of Thomas Brightman (London: Springer, 2014), 30–35, 107–117, 173–187.

  14. 14.

    The French theologian Isaac La Peyrère published his Prae-Adamitae in Latin in 1655. For an example of representative interpretation, see Daniel Harrell, “Adam and Eve: Literal or Literary?” BioLogos, June 17, 2010, https://biologos.org/blogs/archive/adam-and-eve-literal-or-literary.

  15. 15.

    C. Kirk Hadaway and Penny Marler, “How Many Americans Attend Worship Each Week? An Alternative Approach to Measurement,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 44 (2005): 310.

  16. 16.

    Saint Augustine of Hippo wrote De Genesi ad Litteram in the fifth century, positing that the days of Genesis could not possibly be taken to mean literal days.

  17. 17.

    See Meredith Kline, “Because It Had Not Rained,” Westminster Theological Review 20 (1958): 146–157.

  18. 18.

    See Bernard Ramm, The Christian View of Science and Scripture (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1954), 151.

  19. 19.

    Eugenie C. Scott, “The Creation/Evolution Continuum,” National Center for Science Education, December 7, 2000, http://ncse.com/creationism/general/creationevolution-continuum.

  20. 20.

    See Henry Morris, The Long War against God and Ken Ham, Six Days: The Age of the Earth and the Decline of the Church (Green Forest: Master Books, 2013), 47.

  21. 21.

    Victor J. Stengar, “Intelligent Design: The New Stealth Creationism,” Talk Reason, May 5, 2001, http://www.talkreason.org/articles/Stealth.pdf.

  22. 22.

    Virginia Gray, “Anti-evolution Sentiment and Behavior,” Journal of American History 57 (1970): 365.

  23. 23.

    Ronald L. Numbers, The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 133.

  24. 24.

    Ibid., 158.

  25. 25.

    Officially “The State of Tennessee vs. John Scopes” (no legal citation). The trial itself was choreographed as a publicity stunt to bolster the local economy. See H. L. Mencken, “Genesis Triumphant,” The Baltimore Evening Sun, Baltimore, MD, July 18, 1925.

  26. 26.

    Fundamentalists take their name from a general adherence to theological tenets advocated in a series of essays by prominent evangelical theologians in a collection entitled The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, published between 1910 and 1915. See also Matthew Avery Sutton, American Apocalypse: A History of Modern Evangelicalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), xiii.

  27. 27.

    See Edward J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

  28. 28.

    R. Halliburton, Jr., “The Adoption of Arkansas’ Anti-evolution Law,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 23, no. 3 (1964): 272–273.

  29. 29.

    Julie Ingersoll, Building God’s Kingdom: Inside the World of Christian Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 88. See also Jack White, “Segregated Academies,” Time, December 15, 1975 and “A History of Private Schools and Race in the American South,” Southern Education Foundation, http://www.southerneducation.org/Our-Strategies/Research-and-Publications/Race-Ethnicity-Landing-Pages/A-History-of-Private-Schools-Race-in-the-American.aspx.

  30. 30.

    See Walter B. Shurden and Lori Redwine Varnadoe, “The Origins of the Southern Baptist Convention: A Historiographical Study,” Baptist History and Heritage 37, 1 (2002): 71–96.

  31. 31.

    While some scholars have argued that many slave holders of the era used polygenism as a framework to justify treating slaves as less than human; see, Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin’s Sacred Cause: How a Hatred of Slavery Shaped Darwin’s Views on Human Evolution (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009), primary source material appears to indicate the polygenist frustration with most southern slave owners as monogenists with theological constraints; see, Paul Broca, On the Phenomena of Hybridity in the Genus Homo (London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1864). See also Chris Stinger, “Human Evolution: Out of Ethiopia,” Nature 423 (June 2003): 692.

  32. 32.

    David N. Livingstone, Dealing with Darwin: Place, Politics, and Rhetoric in Religious Engagements with Evolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014), 132.

  33. 33.

    Christopher P. Toumey, God’s Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 7.

  34. 34.

    See D. G. Hart, Deconstructing Evangelicalism: Conservative Protestantism in the Age of Billy Graham (Ada: Baker Academic, 2004).

  35. 35.

    David W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 2–17, George Marsden, Fundamentalism in American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth-Century Evangelicalism, 1870–1925 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 117, and W. R. Ward, Early Evangelicalism: A Global Intellectual History, 1670–1789 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

  36. 36.

    Molly Worthen, Apostles of Reason: The Crisis of Authority in American Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 3.

  37. 37.

    Numbers, The Creationists, 211–213 and Mark A. Noll, The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1994), 191.

  38. 38.

    Peter Bowler, Monkey Trials, 207.

  39. 39.

    So named after David N. Livingstone, “Evolution, Eschatology, and the Privatization of Providence,” Science and Christian Belief 2, no. 2 (1990): 125–127.

  40. 40.

    Randall Balmer, Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).

  41. 41.

    This is not to be confused with sociologists Christian Smith’s and Melinda Denton’s concept of “moralistic therapeutic deism,” which offers little in the way of divine intervention or intercession, but does not necessarily exclude it from consideration here. See Christian Smith and Melinda Denton, Soul Searching: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of American Teenagers (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

  42. 42.

    Rodney Stark and Roger Finke, Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000). The work capitalised on earlier collaborations advocating rational choice paradigms and religious marketplaces. See Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, “Evaluating the Evidence: Religious Economies and Sacred Canopies,” American Sociological Review 54, no. 6 (1989): 1054–1056.

  43. 43.

    Robert Ekelund, Robert Hébert, and Robert Tollison, The Marketplace of Christianity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006).

  44. 44.

    See The Oxford Handbook of Christianity and Economics, ed. Paul Oslington (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).

  45. 45.

    Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (Essex: Longman Scientific and Technical, 1986), 251.

  46. 46.

    Edward J. Larson, Trial and Error: The American Controversy Over Creation and Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

  47. 47.

    For a detailed history of the Scopes trial and its aftermath, see Edward J. Larson, Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America’s Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion (New York: Basic Books, 2008).

  48. 48.

    For a rebuttal of the popular narrative of evangelicals withdrawing from mainstream society post-Scopes, see Matthew A. Sutton, American Apocalypse: A History of Modern American Evangelicalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014).

  49. 49.

    Ronald L. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992).

  50. 50.

    Christopher P. Toumey, God’s Own Scientists: Creationists in a Secular World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1994).

  51. 51.

    George E. Webb, The Evolution Controversy in America (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994).

  52. 52.

    See Stephen Jay Gould, Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life (London: Jonathan Cape, 1999) and Kenneth R. Miller, Finding Darwin’s God: A Scientist’s Search for the Common Ground between God and Evolution (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1999).

  53. 53.

    Simon Locke, Constructing “The Beginning”: Discourses of Creation Science (Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999).

  54. 54.

    See Michael Ruse, The Evolution Wars: A Guide to the Debates (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press: 2000) and Michael Ruse, The Evolution-Creation Struggle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).

  55. 55.

    Barbara Forrest and Paul R. Gross, Creationism’s Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).

  56. 56.

    See “The ‘Wedge Document’: ‘So What?’” The Discovery Institute, http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/filesDB-download.php?id=349.

  57. 57.

    David R. Montgomery, The Rocks Don’t Lie: A Geologist Investigates Noah’s Flood (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2012).

  58. 58.

    David N. Livingstone, Darwin’s Forgotten Defenders: The Encounter between Evangelical Theology and Evolutionary Thought (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1987).

  59. 59.

    Ronald L. Numbers, Darwinism Comes to America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998).

  60. 60.

    Peter J. Bowler, Monkey Trials and Gorilla Sermons: Evolution and Christianity from Darwin to Intelligent Design (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007).

  61. 61.

    See especially Robert Chambers, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (London: J. Churchill, 1844).

  62. 62.

    Randall Balmer, Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: A Journey into the Evangelical Subculture in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).

  63. 63.

    For a historical commentary on the twentieth-century move towards experiential and emotionally governed spirituality within evangelicalism, see Todd M. Brenneman, Homespun Gospel: The Triumph of Sentimentality in Contemporary American Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).

  64. 64.

    See Os Guinness, Fit Bodies Fat Minds: Why Evangelicals Don’t Think and What to Do about It (Surrey: Baker Books, 1994).

  65. 65.

    Mark A. Noll, The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdman’s Publishing Company, 1994).

  66. 66.

    For examples of revisionist religious histories especially geared for evangelical home-school curricula, see the God’s Plan for America series, and especially Peter Marshall and David Manual, From Sea to Shining Sea: 1787–1837 (God’s Plan for America) (New York: F. H. Revell Company, 1986). For more contemporary revisionist histories popular within evangelical communities, see works like David Barton, The Jefferson Lies: Exposing the Myths You’ve Always Believed about Thomas Jefferson (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2012).

  67. 67.

    Molly Worthen, Apostles of Reason: The Crisis of Authority in American Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).

  68. 68.

    For a detailed political history of American evangelicalism, see Steven P. Miller, The Age of Evangelicalism: America’s Born-Again Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).

  69. 69.

    Michael J. McVicar, Christian Reconstruction: R. J. Rushdoony and American Religious Conservatism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).

  70. 70.

    Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578, 1987.

  71. 71.

    Julie Ingersoll, Building God’s Kingdom: Inside the World of Christian Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).

  72. 72.

    See James C. Carper, “Home Schooling, History, and Historians: The Past as Present,” The High School Journal 75, no. 4 (1992): 252–257.

  73. 73.

    Bowler, Monkey Trials, 30.

  74. 74.

    Numbers, The Creationists, 228–229.

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Huskinson, B.L. (2020). Introduction. In: American Creationism, Creation Science, and Intelligent Design in the Evangelical Market. Christianities in the Trans-Atlantic World. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45435-7_1

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