Abstract
This chapter explores the developments of Shaw and O’Casey within Irish socialism during the years leading to and into the 1920s as defined by how each dealt with the memory of James Connolly. While Shaw endeavoured to recognize Connolly as an internationalist, O’Casey—by early 1918—decidedly could not. Prompted by the machinations of Connolly’s former allies in the Irish Transport and General Workers’ Union against the union’s founder James Larkin, O’Casey began finding his voice by striking at said allies—including against the memory of Connolly. Shaw, on the other hand, cognizant of his having supported Connolly in 1913 and further, came to embrace elements of Connolly’s ideologies. The directions of both Shaw and O’Casey, by the late 1920s, placed them on the thresholds for articulating Irish socialism, within the internationalist vein, in defining works, respectively.
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Notes
- 1.
John Millington Synge, The Playboy of the Western World, 116.
- 2.
See Anthony Roche’s excellent The Irish Dramatic Revival 1899–1939 and the above Synge, Connolly, and Socialist Provocation for more on the ties between The Shewing-up of BlancoPosnet and The Playboy of the Western World (Roche, 90–91; O’Ceallaigh Ritschel, 80–85).
- 3.
See O’Casey’s 1911 correspondence with the Great Northern Railway’s secretary in The Collected Letters of Sean O’Casey, Vol. I, 1910–1941, edited by David Krause.
- 4.
Sean O’Casey, The Collected Letters of Sean O’Casey, Vol. I, 742.
- 5.
Sean O’Casey, Drums Under the Window, 257.
- 6.
A. Patrick Wilson (who used the name Andrew P. Wilson in Scotland) was a regular contributor to the Irish Worker prior to 1915 and often used the pseudonym “Euchan”, as he did in the debate with O’Casey—a debate O’Casey initiated. See O’Casey’s published debate with Wilson in the Irish Worker , 8 February to 8 March 1913 in The Letters of Sean O’Casey, Vol. I, 1910–1941, edited by David Krause.
- 7.
Lane offered to donate his collection of Impressionist paintings to Dublin if the city provided a suitable gallery to house the collection. While there was much support for providing a gallery, there was significant opposition, as by William Martin Murphy who objected to using public funds for the project.
- 8.
James Connolly, “Labour in Dublin”, 387.
- 9.
James Connolly, quoted in Francis Sheehy-Skeffington, “London’s Magnificent Rally to the Dublin Rebels”, 1.
- 10.
Shaw, George Bernard, “Mad Dogs in Uniform”, 97. Perhaps it should be stated that Shaw’s call for Dublin labour to “arm themselves” refers to the arming of the working class against the physical oppression from by the state, in this case through the Dublin Metropolitan Police. Shaw’s call was decidedly not a call to arm individuals as in a right to arm for the sake of arming. Shaw’s political call for arming the working class was also made on 1 February 1905 at a meeting of the Society of the Friends of Russian Freedom, which was itself in response to Russian workers who were fired on by Tsar Nicholas II’s troops on 9 January 1905. Hundreds of workers and their families had marched in procession to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg in order to present petitions for social improvements to Nicholas. Shaw stated, as reported by London’s Times: “until all the working-class populations of the world understood that when they stirred out of their ordinary round to oppose the state they must do it with arms in their hands or it would be understood that none of them really meant business” (“The Crisis in Russia”, The Times, 2 February 1905, quoted in Soboleva and Wrenn, 113).
- 11.
James Connolly, quoted in Donal Nevin, James Connolly: ‘A Full Life’, 463.
- 12.
“In Croyden Park”, 6.
- 13.
In his 2017 book Judging Shaw, Fintan O’Toole makes the same point about James Connolly using the title from Shaw’s Arms and the Man for his 13 December article in the Irish Worker on the Irish Citizen Army (114). This connection and point was first made in Shaw, Synge, Connolly, and Socialist Provocation in 2011 (155).
- 14.
D. R. O’Connor Lysaght, “The Irish Citizen Army, 1913–1916: White, Larkin, and Connolly”, 21.
- 15.
The London press that was pro-employers and against labour and socialism, like the Daily Sketch, reacted strongly to Shaw’s 1 November speech by calling for his arrest for “inciting armed revolt” (Laurence and Grene, “Introduction and Notes”, 96). The reaction of the pro-employers press in Dublin was much different. Rather than add credence to Shaw in Ireland by calling for his arrest, the Dublin commercial bourgeois press sought to undermine and dismiss Shaw. The Irish Times : “[Shaw] boasts that he left Ireland at the age of twenty, and has not lived here since. As a licensed buffoon and consecrated prophet of the patently absurd, he has to support his reputation by insisting that what is obviously wrong is quite clearly right” (“Mr. Bernard Shaw on the Strike”,6). The Sunday Independent (the Sunday version of William Martin Murphy’s Irish Independent ) struck a similar tone as it published a cartoon depicting Shaw as“G. B. S., the Buffoon”. James Connolly, at the time handling the editor’s duties of The Irish Worker while James Larkin was imprisoned, published a cartoon by Ernest Kavanagh on 9 November that depicted Murphy cast on to rocks by other members of the Employers Federation, which Murphy led against workers. Titled “On the Rocks”, the cartoon suggested that a split was possible within the Federation given Murphy’s “obsession with destroying Larkin and the ITGWU, i.e., that their relationship could be ‘on the rocks’” (Curry, 78).
- 16.
Irish Citizen Army Constitution, quoted in Arrington, Lauren. Revolutionary Lives: Constance and Casimir Markievicz, 102.
- 17.
James Connolly, Labour in Irish History, 188.
- 18.
Adrian Grant, Irish Socialist Republicanism 1909–36, 37.
- 19.
Sean O’Casey (P. O’Cathasaigh), “Volunteers and Workers”, Irish Worker, in Sean O’Casey Letters, Vol. I, 40–41.
- 20.
Padraig Pearse, quoted in Peter Berresford, Ellis, A History of the Irish Working Class, 223–224.
- 21.
Padraig Pearse, quoted in Padraig Yeates, Lockout Dublin 1913, 220.
- 22.
James Connolly, “Our Duty in the Crisis”, 4.
- 23.
Quoted in William O’Brien, Forth the Banners Go: Reminiscences of William O’Brien as Told to Edward MacLysaght , 4.
- 24.
George Bernard Shaw, Common Sense About the War, 16–17.
- 25.
Ibid., 17.
- 26.
George Bernard Shaw, “Ireland and the First World War”, 103.
- 27.
Peter Gahan, “Bernard Shaw in Two Great Irish Houses: Kilteragh and Coole” (in this Volume).
- 28.
The Shaws encountered some of the Lusitania’s survivors during their return voyage to England from Ireland. In his Preface to Heartbreak House, Shaw recalled: “To me, with my mindfull of the hideous cost of Neuve, Chapelle, Ypres, and the Gallipoli landing, the fuss about the Lusitania [sic] seemed almost a heartless impertinence, though I was well acquainted personally with [...] and understood better perhaps than most people, the misfortune of the death of [Hugh] Lane” (34). The ship sank in less than eighteen minutes. The imprecise number of lives lost is due to the fact that not all servants traveling with First Class passengers were listed among the passengers. This was the practice at the time, and between competing passenger liners. The White Star’s Titanic also has an imprecise number for those lost with the ship.
- 29.
However, the dangers crossing the Atlantic in 1915 did not prevent Lady Gregory from traveling to the United States for a lecture tour in the 1915 autumn.
- 30.
Dan H. Laurence and Nicholas Grene, “Notes”, Shaw, Lady Gregory, and the Abbey: A Correspondence and a Record, 105.
- 31.
George Bernard Shaw, Shaw, Lady Gregory, and the Abbey: A Correspondence and a Record, 104.
- 32.
William Butler Yeats, Shaw, Lady Gregory, and the Abbey: A Correspondence and a Record, 107. Dan H. Laurence and Nicholas Grene indicate that O’Flaherty, V. C. was in rehearsals by the second week of November 1915 (“Notes”. 106).
- 33.
Shaw had requested Abbey actors Arthur Sinclair and Sara Allgood for the cast of O’Flaherty , V. C.; both were not then with the Abbey. However, Sinclair was rehired but Allgood was then in Australia and unavailable. Helen Molony, like Allgood, was often cast in older roles. In the previous year, Sean Connolly played the lead in Edward McNulty’s The Lord Mayor . McNulty was a childhood friend of Shaw’s, which both continued as adults.
- 34.
James Connolly, “Notes on the Front”, 4.
- 35.
Shaw, Shaw, Lady Gregory, and the Abbey: A Correspondence and a Record, 95.
- 36.
George Bernard Shaw, O’Flaherty, V. C., 261.
- 37.
John Millington Synge, In the Shadow of the Glen, 43.
- 38.
Shaw, O’Flaherty, V. C., 276.
- 39.
Shaw, Shaw, Lady Gregory, and the Abbey: A Correspondence and a Record, 94.
- 40.
Shaw, O’Flaherty, V. C., 258; 276.
- 41.
Shaw, O’Flaherty, V. C., 273.
- 42.
Shaw, Lady Gregory, and the Abbey: A Correspondence and a Record, 95.
- 43.
O’Casey, Drums Under the Windows , 257.
- 44.
In the 5 February 1916 Workers’ Republic, Connolly lamented the financial enticements the British army offered the working class: “For the sake of a few paltry shillings per week thousands of Irish workers have sold their country in the hour of their country’s greatest need and hope. For the sake of a few paltry shillings Separation Allowance thousands of Irish womenhave made life miserable for their husbands with entreaties to join the British Army” (“Ties ThatBind”, 1).
- 45.
George Bernard Shaw, Bernard Shaw Collected Letters, 1911–1925, Vol. 3, 717.
- 46.
James Connolly, “Enlist or Starve”, 1. Shaw, also at this time, provided Nathan with a poster-text on how to more effectively recruit working-class Irishmen. In February 1916, the British issued a recruiting pamphlet from Dublin Castle, stating that “the Dublin slums were more unhealthy than the trenches in Flanders”(quoted in Nevin, 615). Arguably, this sentiment was in Shaw’s poster-text as he re-uses it inWar Issues for Irishmen in 1918, specifically as: “A Trench is a safer place than a Dublin slum”(War Issues, 198). Undoubtedly, Shaw did not retrieve the idea from the British recruiting pamphlet, which he probably never saw. Connolly responded to the British pamphlet in February 1916, writing: “You can die honourably in a Dublin slum,...if you die of fever orwant, rather than sell your soul to the enemies of your class and country” (quoted in Nevin,616).
- 47.
O’Brien, Forth the Banners Go: Reminiscences of William O’Brien as Told to Edward MacLysaght , 195.
- 48.
James Connolly, “Next to the Revolution” Advert, 4.
- 49.
James Connolly, Under Which Flag? Advert, 4.
- 50.
James Connolly, Under Which Flag? 106.
- 51.
Ibid., 112.
- 52.
Ibid., 112. As Ellen O’Donnell’s internationalist class perception reflects Connolly’s seven years in America as a labour organizer and socialist, as well as his socialistic background in Scotland, Connolly inadvertently—through Ellen’s perspective—reinforces Shaw’s point about gaining a world perspective once outside of Ireland.
- 53.
Ibid., 113.
- 54.
Ibid., 114.
- 55.
Ibid., 115.
- 56.
Sean O’Casey, quoted in Christopher Murray, Sean O’Casey: Writer at Work, 97.
- 57.
Sean O’Casey, The Letters of Sean O’Casey, 1942–1954, Vol. II, 438.
- 58.
Sean O’Casey, The Story of the Irish Citizen Army, 52.
- 59.
Robert Lynd, Introduction, James Connolly, Labour in Ireland: Labour in Irish History, The Re-Conquest of Ireland, vii.
- 60.
Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Ireland and the Irish Question, 251.
- 61.
Vladimir Lenin, The Discussion of Self-Determination Summed Up. In January 1918, only months after Russia’s October Revolution in which Bolsheviks seized Petrograd (St. Petersburg) and Moscow, Connolly’s colleagues William O’Brien and Cathal O’Shannon met Maxim Litvinov, the Soviet plenipotentiary in London. O’Shannon recalled the meeting: “It was a great pleasure for us to hear him speak of James Connolly, and as he spoke I thought how Connolly’s heart would have rejoiced at the success of the Bolsheviks, and how he would have handled the situation. In Russian, Litvinoff told us, they had heard of Connolly and his work years ago, even before 1913” (quoted in O’Connor, 14). When Connolly’s son Roderic travelled to Petrograd in 1920 and was introduced to Lenin by radical American journalist John Reed, Lenin told Roderic that he had read Connolly’s Labour in Irish History and described James Connolly as “‘head and shoulders’ above his contemporaries in the European socialist movement” (quoted in Charlie McGuire, Roddy Connolly and the Struggle for Socialism in Ireland, 36).
- 62.
James Moran, The Theatre of Sean O’Casey, 37.
- 63.
In December 1913, Connolly maintained crucial ITGWU correspondence and signed the letters as “Acting General Secretary” (as in letter to G. Sherlock, Lord Mayor, 11 December1913, http://catalogue.nli.ie/Record/vtls000626661).
- 64.
O’Casey, The Letters of Sean O’Casey, 1910–1941, Vol. I, 74.
- 65.
Ibid., 78.
- 66.
William O’Brien, quoted in Barry Desmond, No Workers’ Republic: Reflections on Labour and Ireland, 1913–1967, 31. William O’Brien also in early 1917 was instrumental in reviving the Socialist Party of Ireland (SPI), and was elected its chairman. The SPI had roots with Connolly on his return from the United States in 1910, but an earlier party of the same name was formed in1904 after Connolly had emigrated—but was defunct before 1909. The resurgent SPI of 1910, faded once Connolly became Acting General Secretary of the ITGWU, and Commandant of the ICA in October 1914. Under O’Brien’s leadership, the resurfaced SPI in 1917 “advertised itself as founded by Connolly” (quoted in O’Connor, 19). Emmet O’Connor argues that O’Brien used the SPI in order “to place himself at the heart of the resurgent ITGWU” (17).
- 67.
Shaw’s friend, the Dublin poet George Russell who knew Connolly well and who had also been on the speakers’ platform on 1 November 1913 with Connolly and Shaw, stated in his post-1916 poem “To the Memory of Some I knew Who Are Dead” that Connolly “cast the last torch on the pile” that ignited the Rising, as in a conflagration (as quoted in Nevin, 704).
- 68.
Shaw, “Mad Dogs in Uniform”, 97; Nevin, James Connolly: ‘A Full Life’, 463.
- 69.
Among the English socialists and suffragettes who also spoke at the 1 November 1913 London rally on behalf of Larkin and locked out Dublin workers was Silvia Pankhurst. In 1920, Pankhurst assisted Connolly’s son Roderic in traveling to Russia, where Roderic met Lenin and attended the Second Comiterm Congress (McGuire, 32).
- 70.
George Bernard Shaw, War Issues for Irishmen, 196–197.
- 71.
James Connolly, “The Irish Flag”, 1.
- 72.
Olga Soboleva and Angus Wrenn, The Only Hope of the World: George Bernard Shaw and Russia, 119.
- 73.
David Krause, “Notes”, The Letters of Sean O’Casey, 1910–1941, Vol. I, 87.
- 74.
George Bernard Shaw, in The Letters of Sean O’Casey, 1910–1941, Vol. I, 88.
- 75.
Emmet O’Connor, The Reds and the Green: Ireland, Russia and the Communist Internationals,1919–43, 83.
- 76.
Ibid., 83.
- 77.
Ibid.
- 78.
Ibid., 84.
- 79.
Gerry Watts, “Delia Larkin and the Game of ‘House’”, 37–38.
- 80.
Murray, Sean O’Casey: Writer at Work, 163. While The Plough and the Stars premiered in 1926, O’Casey began writing it in 1924.
- 81.
Moran, The Theatre of Sean O’Casey, 38.
- 82.
Quoted in Ibid., 38.
- 83.
Sean O’Casey, The Plough and the Stars, 92.
- 84.
The same desperation for relevance is seen throughout The Plough and the Stars, as in Peter Flynn in his Foresters’ uniform, in The Covey with his copy of the fictitious Jenersky’s Thesis on the Origin, Development, an’ Consolidation of the Evolutionary Idea of the Proletariat, and even in Nora’s desire for a loving husband.
- 85.
Anthony Roche, The Irish Dramatic Revival, 1899–1939, 95–96; 141.
- 86.
Susan Cannon Harris, Irish Drama and the Other Revolution, 173.
- 87.
O’Casey, The Letters of Sean O’Casey, 1910–1941, Vol. I, 329.
- 88.
Ibid., 284.
- 89.
George Bernard Shaw, The Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism and Capitalism, 197; James Connolly, The Re-Conquest of Ireland, 38. In The Re-Conquest of Ireland, Connolly stated the above as: “The worker is the slave of capitalist society, the female is the slave of that slave”(38). In 1972, John Lennon and Yoko Ono wrote and released their song “Woman is the Nigger of the World”, which included the lyrics “Woman is the slave to the slave”. In an American television interview with Dick Cavett, also in 1972, Lennon, with Ono seated next to him, explained the song and defended its title. In his comments, Lennon stated that they included the idea of “woman is slave of a slave, that is what Connolly said, the great Irishman”(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iOu7QtVLfJQ). This is an interesting notion on many levels, not the least of which indicates that Lennon too read Connolly’s The Re-Conquest of Ireland, in part or whole. This might lead to the speculation of that the inclusion of Shaw’s image on the cover of the Beatle’s 1967 Sgt. Pepper album was Lennon’s idea. Lennon often linked himself towards socialist ideas in his work, such as in his 1970 song “Working Class Hero”. In his contributed dramatic sketch “James Connolly” in the 2016 theatrical literary response to the centennial of the 1916 Easter Rising, Signatories, that was staged within Dublin’s Kilmainham Goal (where the seven signatories of the Easter Proclamation were executed, along with seven other rebel combatants), Hugo Hamilton ends with an economically marginalized immigrant woman singing Lennon’s “Working Class Hero” in Britain (40).
- 90.
Peter Grogan Rare Books, Catalogue Four. Perhaps if Plunkett’s contribution to the fund for Connolly’s family had been public knowledge, Plunkett’s home Kilteragh might not have been burned by Republicans during the Irish Civil War—although that is by no means a surety given that Connolly’s radicalism and socialism was not shared by many Republicans.
- 91.
A fuller and more nuanced consideration of the post-1916 parallel tracks of Shaw and O’Casey, in the shadow of Connolly, will be in my forthcoming monograph, Bernard Shaw, Sean O’Casey, and the Dead James Connolly.
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O’Ceallaigh Ritschel, N. (2020). Bernard Shaw and Sean O’Casey: Remembering James Connolly. In: McNamara, A., O’Ceallaigh Ritschel, N. (eds) Bernard Shaw and the Making of Modern Ireland. Bernard Shaw and His Contemporaries. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42113-7_6
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