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Ice and Its Formation

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Antifreeze Proteins Volume 1

Abstract

Ice formation is ubiquitous in nature, and plays a pivotal role in natural processes such as cloud formation and precipitation. Its occurrence in biological organisms is, however, usually problematic, and the main function of antifreeze proteins (AFPs) is to prevent freezing of organisms that inhabit at subzero temperatures. Understanding the physical processes that impact ice formation is, therefore, a prerequisite to elucidating how AFPs function in biological cells and organisms. The primary focus of this chapter is to provide a basic overview of ice and its formation. In particular, the structure of ice and its polymorphism, the thermodynamics and kinetics of ice formation from pure water and aqueous solutions, and the processes that result in the formation of amorphous glassy water will be discussed in detail.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Note that a vanishingly small fraction of such arrangements will have nonzero electrostatic dipole or quadrupole moments. Such structures will have a vanishingly small probability of emerging in a proton-disordered phase.

  2. 2.

    To be more precise, it is the number of nucleation events per unit time within an ensemble of independent nucleation experiments, e.g., isolated microdroplets, that is a Poisson process.

  3. 3.

    An alternative definition for the degree of supercooling is θ = T/Tm. See Gianetti et al. (2016) for discussion.

  4. 4.

    For strong liquids, D has an Arrhenius-like dependence on temperature. In fragile liquids, however, D drops much more abruptly as temperature decreases. Depending on the extent of supercooling water can be strong or fragile. In the nucleation-limited regime, i.e., at temperatures close to Tm, water behaves as a fragile liquid, while amorphous ices act as strong liquids. Therefore, it has been speculated that a fragile-to-strong transition occurs in the no man’s land.

  5. 5.

    Here, the kinetic freezing temperature refers to the highest temperature at which freezing occurs within the observation timescale of an experiment.

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Acknowledgments

A.H.-A. gratefully acknowledges the support of the National Science Foundation CAREER Award (Grant No. CBET-1751971).

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  1. Department of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA

    Amir Haji-Akbari

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    Dennis Steven Friis

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Haji-Akbari, A. (2020). Ice and Its Formation. In: Ramløv, H., Friis, D. (eds) Antifreeze Proteins Volume 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41929-5_3

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