The Occupational Status of Jews in the United States on the Eve of the US Civil War

Abstract

The Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) from the 1860 Census of Population (one percent sample of free people) is used to study the occupational distribution and the determinants of socio-economic status of Jewish men (age 16–60) compared to other free men. Jews cannot be identified directly, but two versions of the Distinctive Jewish Name (DJN) technique are used to identify men with a higher probability of being Jewish.

The men identified as likely to be Jewish are more likely to be in managerial, clerical, machine operator, and sales (especially as peddlers) occupations. They are less likely to be in farm related occupations as owners, tenants, managers, or laborers.

Using multiple regression analysis to study the Duncan Socio-Economic Index (SEI), it is found that the index increases with age (at a decreasing rate), literacy, being married, and living in the South. It is lower among (free) non-whites, among the foreign-born, those with more children, and those living in rural areas (especially on farms). Other variables the same, US-born Jews do not differ significantly in SEI from other free, native-born men, but foreign-born Jews have a significantly higher SEI than other immigrants or even US-born non-Jews.

I appreciate receiving from the Minnesota Population Center, University of Minnesota the one-percent Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) of the 1860 US Census of Population. I also appreciate receiving data on the Jews in the Union Army Veterans sample from the Center for Population Economics, University of Chicago Graduate School of Business and, in particular from Christopher Roudiez, and interactions with Ira Sheskin on the Distinctive Jewish Name (DJN) technique. Financial support from the George Washington University is also acknowledged. The excellent research assistance of RaeAnn Robinson is most appreciated.

Statistical Appendix A: Analysis of 1860 Census of Population

Definitions of Variables

The variables used in the statistical analyses are defined below.

• Data source: 1860 Census of Population, Public Use Microdata Sample, 1 percent free people sample, PUMS, Minnesota Population Center (MPC), University of Minnesota (2015)

• Definition of population: 16–60 year old free males with an occupation according to the 1860 Census.(Table 2.7)

Table 2.7 Descriptive statistics for the variables used in the regression analysis

Dependent Variable

Duncan Socioeconomic Index (SEI): This is a measure constructed by the Minnesota Population Center (MPC) that assigns an SEI score to each occupation using the 1950 occupational classification scheme (Duncan 1961). The SEI is a measure of occupational status based upon the income level and educational attainment associated with each occupation in 1950. The SEI variable is constructed using the individual responses to occupation, 1950 basis, from the 1860 Census data. The 1950 Census Bureau occupational classification system is applied to the occupational data, to enhance comparability across years. For pre-1940 samples created at MPC, the alphabetic responses supplied by enumerators were directly coded into the 1950 classification. See Appendix Table 2.8 for a list of selected occupations with their SEI values. Any laborer with no specified industry living in a household with a farmer is recoded into farm labor.

Table 2.8 Socio-Economic Index (SEI) scores for selected occupations

In the regression analysis, because of the positive skewness in the SEI distribution, the natural logarithm of the SEI is the dependent variables.

Explanatory Variables

Age: This is the self-reported age of the respondent in years as of his last birthday.

Illiterate: This is a dichotomous variable that distinguishes individuals who are illiterate (cannot read or write in any language) from those who can read and write.

Non-white: This is a dichotomous variable that distinguishes individuals based on their racial origin, as categorized by the census enumerator. All individuals who were categorized as a racial origin other than “white” have been coded as “non-white” for this variable. Non-whites include Black/Negro, Mulatto, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Chinese.

Spouse: This is a dichotomous variable that distinguishes men who were married with their spouse present from all others.

Number of Children: This variable counts the number of own children (of any age or marital status) residing with each individual. It includes step-children and adopted children as well as biological children.

Foreign Born: This is a dichotomous variable that was constructed to distinguish those with a birthplace outside the United States from individuals born in the United States. Birthplace was considered to be the United States if the respondent was born in a state or territory of the United States; all others were considered foreign born. Additional dichotomous variables were created for specific countries of birth.

Rural-Farm: This is a dichotomous variable that distinguishes individuals living in a rural and farm household from all others. The “rural” definition was applied ex-post by the 1940 Census Bureau, in which cities and incorporated places of 2500 inhabitants or more and townships or other subdivisions having a total population of 10,000 or more as well as a population density of 1000 or more per square mile were coded as “urban”; all other areas were considered rural. Any household that contained a person with the occupation “farmer” was coded as a farm household.

Rural-Non-Farm: This is a dichotomous variable that distinguished individuals living in a rural and non-farm household from all others. The “rural” definition was applied ex-post by the 1940 Census Bureau, in which cities and incorporated places of 2500 inhabitants or more and townships or other subdivisions having a total population of 10,000 or more as well as a population density of 1000 or more per square mile were coded as “urban”; all other areas were considered rural. Any household that contained a person with the occupation “farmer” was coded as a farm household; all others were considered non-farm.

South: This is a dichotomous variable that distinguishes all slave-holding states in 1860 from all other states. This list of states considered slave-holding in this distinction is: Delaware, Missouri, Virginia, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, Kentucky, Maryland, Tennessee, and the District of Columbia.

Union Jews: This is a dichotomous variable that distinguishes individuals whose surname was included on the list of individuals who were likely Jewish (based on reported religion whether they were married by a Rabbi or in a Synagogue) in the Union Army data (University of Chicago) from all others (Fogel et al. 2000). “Religion is only recorded in the Union Army data with marriage info. This can be a marriage certificate, a widow’s pension application, or the family circular (a long form about the soldier’s family filled out in 1898 or 1912…). It also allowed me to add some soldiers married by rabbis that weren’t explicitly labeled as Jewish” (E-mail from Christopher Roudiez, Center for Population Economics, to Barry R. Chiswick, Friday, April 21, 2017). The marriage records occasionally included the officiant’s name and title. Although the surnames Brown and Davis were included on this list of Jews in the Union Army data, for this paper individuals with these surnames were not coded as part of the Union Jews variable. Surnames that were included are: Asch, Basch, Berwin, Bloomenthal, Blumenthal, Blumingthal, Bowers, Breslaum, Burgheim, Cahen, Cohen, Cohn, Cowan, Cowen, Dessan, Dessau, Dessaw, Desson, Hersch, Hess, Hirch, Hirish, Hirsch, Hirsh, Hurch, Hursh, Jessel, Kohn, Koff, Kopf, Lasalle, Levin, Lewin, Moses, Neuman, Newman, Newmann, Rosenthal, Rothschild, Stahl, Steinhard, Steinhart, Strauss, Uhlfeld, Vohlfeld, Walberg, Zoellner, Zollmer, and Zollner. For some individuals, the spelling of the surname varied over time and these various spellings were used.

DJN Jews: This is a dichotomous variable that distinguishes individuals with a surname that is considered a “distinctive Jewish name” from all others. For this variable, Jews are identified as individuals having a surname that is on a list of 36 DJNs in Sheskin (1998). These names are Berman, Caplan, Cohen, Epstein, Feldman, Freedman, Friedman, Goldberg, Goldman, Goldstein, Goodman, Greenberg, Gross, Grossman, Jacobs, Jaffe, Kahn, Kaplan, Katz, Kohn, Levin, Levine, Levinson, Levy, Lieberman, Rosen, Rosenberg, Rosenthal, Rubin, Schwartz, Shapiro, Siegel, Silverman, Stern, Weinstein, and Weiss.

Jewish: This is a dichotomous variable that distinguishes individuals who were likely Jewish from all others. Individuals were considered to be likely Jewish if they fell into either the DJN or Union Jews categories.

Jewish Foreign Born: This is a dichotomous variable that distinguishes foreign born individuals who were likely Jewish from all others. This variable uses the definitions of Jewish and foreign born as described above.

Occupational Category: This variable was constructed based on the occupation data, 1950 basis. The occupational categories used are as follows: PTK (Professional, Technical, and Kindred); Farmers (owners, tenants, and managers); Managers (non-farm); Clerical; Sales; Craft (including military and apprentices); Operatives; Service; Farm Workers for wages and farm laborers and fishermen; Laborers (non-farm); No Occupation; and, Not Applicable. Any laborer with no specified industry living in a household with a farmer is recoded into farm labor.