Abstract
All questions contained in the questionnaire on ‘Private International Law for Corporate Social Responsibility’ have been answered in this report on Belgian law. A comparison with other countries is not available here. Nevertheless a brief comparative insight tells us that Belgium is neither leader nor laggard in this area. Belgium is no pioneer in matters concerning corporate social responsibility (hereafter ‘CSR’) (responsabilité sociétale de l’entreprise, maatschappelijk verantwoord ondernemen). Yet the general laws, both substantive and procedural, seem to be flexible enough to deal with CSR cases. Our focus is de lega lata, not de lege feranda. No European regulations have been included here in full since they are available online in many different languages. The Belgian Act on Private International Law can also be found online.
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Notes
- 1.
ICDO/CIDD (29 March 2016), 7. In Dutch: “Maatschappelijk Verantwoord Ondernemen is een proces waarbij ondernemingen vrijwillig streven naar verbetering op bedrijfs- en maatschappelijk vlak door op systematische wijze economische, milieu- en sociale overwegingen op een geïntegreerde en coherente manier in de gehele bedrijfsvoering op te nemen, waarbij overleg met stakeholders of belanghebbenden van de onderneming deel uitmaakt van dit proces.” In French: “La responsabilité sociétale des entreprises est un processus d’amélioration dans le cadre duquel les entreprises intègrent de manière volontaire, systématique et cohérente des considérations d’ordre social, environnemental et économique dans leur gestion en concertation avec leurs parties prenantes.”
- 2.
https://www.business.belgium.be/en/managing_your_business/sustainable_business (The translation is ours.).
- 3.
ICDO/CIDD (29 March 2016), pp. 7–9.
- 4.
For an interesting overview of the importance of CSR soft law and its interplay with hard law, see Aydogdu (2016a), pp. 669–704 and 868–908.
- 5.
The Dutch version with link to the French, German and English translation: https://economie.fgov.be/nl/themas/ondernemingen/een-onderneming-beheren-en/maatschappelijk-verantwoord/oeso-richtlijnen-voor/nationaal-contactpunt-belgie. English data on the site are rare.
- 6.
The representatives for the federal government are the ministers of Economy, Foreign Affairs, Work, Justice, Environment and Public Health. All three regional governments are represented, namely the governments of the Flemish Region, the Walloon Region and the Brussels-Capital Region.
The three national interprofessional trade unions are the Algemeen Christelijk Vakverbond (ACV)/Confédération des Syndicats Chrétiens (CSC), the Algemeen Belgisch Vakverbond (ABVV)/Fédération Générale du Travail de Belgique (FGTB) and the Algemene Centrale der Liberale Vakbonden van België (ACLVB)/Centrale Générale des Syndicats Libéraux de Belgique (CGSLB). The three representative employers organisations are the Federation of Enterprises in Belgium (FEB), Comeos (federation for trade and services) and Agoria (federation for technological industry).
- 7.
- 8.
The annual reports of the NCP can be found here: https://economie.fgov.be/nl/themas/ondernemingen/een-onderneming-beheren-en/maatschappelijk-verantwoord/oeso-richtlijnen-voor/nationaal-contactpunt-belgie/jaarverslagen-nationaal.
- 9.
In 2014, there was one roundtable on human rights for the non-ferro sector and three roundtables on the clothing sector in Bangladesh. In 2015, two roundtables were organised, one of which concerned clothing and one conflict minerals. The latter was again discussed during a roundtable in 2016. In 2017, there was a roundtable on due diligence in the financial sector.
- 10.
NGOs have been more involved in 2017 with an annual meeting and several bilateral meetings.
- 11.
Reports on the several specific matters that have been brought to the NCP can be found here: https://economie.fgov.be/nl/themas/ondernemingen/een-onderneming-beheren-en/maatschappelijk-verantwoord/oeso-richtlijnen-voor/nationaal-contactpunt-belgie/berichten-nationaal.
- 12.
The drafting of the NAP was also seized as an opportunity to confirm other duties under several international instruments, such as the Guidelines of the OECD on multinational enterprises (as revised in 2011), the Sustainable Development Goals set by the UN (especially goals 8, decent work and economic growth, and 12, responsible consumption and production) and the duties committed to in the framework of the ILO.
- 13.
The NAP can be found here, but only in Dutch and French: https://economie.fgov.be/nl/themas/ondernemingen/een-onderneming-beheren-en/maatschappelijk-verantwoord.
- 14.
Interdepartementale Commissie voor Duurzame Ontwikkeling (2017), p. 19.
- 15.
Interdepartementale Commissie voor Duurzame Ontwikkeling (2017), p. 20.
- 16.
Interdepartementale Commissie voor Duurzame Ontwikkeling (2017), p. 22.
- 17.
- 18.
For more information on the ISO 26000, including its creation process and an overall critical assessment, see Bijlmakers and Van Calster (2015), pp. 275 ff.
- 19.
- 20.
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
- 24.
Bijlmakers and Van Calster (2015), p. 290.
- 25.
- 26.
- 27.
- 28.
Maps of the different regions and communities can be found here: https://www.belgium.be/en/about_belgium/government/federale_staat/map.
- 29.
For a list of the competences, see art. 127–130 Belgian Constitution; art. 4–5 Special Act of 8 August 1980 for Institutional Reform; https://www.belgium.be/en/about_belgium/government/communities/competence.
- 30.
Art. 35 Belgian Constitution, read together with its transitional provision; https://www.belgium.be/en/about_belgium/government/federal_authorities/competence_federal_government.
- 31.
Art. 134 Belgian Constitution; art. 6 Special Act of 8 August 1980 for Institutional Reform; https://www.belgium.be/en/about_belgium/government/regions/competence.
- 32.
See also Enneking et al. (2015), p. 169.
- 33.
“L’intérêt social est determine par le but de lucre collectif des associés actuels et futurs de la société.” Cass. 28 November 2013, no. C.12.0549.N, RDC 2014, 854, note D. Willermain, TRV 2014, 287; Simonart (2016), p. 318.
- 34.
Simonart (2016), p. 318.
- 35.
A full English version is available here: www.corporategovernancecommittee.be/en/over-de-code-2020/2020-belgian-code-corporate-governance.
- 36.
Art. 96, §2, 1° Company Code, now replaced by article 3:6 Code of Companies and Associations.
- 37.
Belgian Corporate Governance Code 2009, Preamble, no. 8. See also Belgian Corporate Governance Code 2020, How to use the 2020 Code?, no. 4.
- 38.
Recent research has shown that few companies make use of this flexibility and the compliance rate is at 96%: 94% of the provisions are complied with and for 2% of the provisions, it is explained why they are not complied with. See http://www.corporategovernancecommittee.be/en/2009-code/compliance-with-the-code.
- 39.
See also Enneking et al. (2015), p. 166.
- 40.
See also Belgian Corporate Governance Code 2009, Guideline 1.2 (under Principle 1); Simonart (2016), p. 320.
- 41.
Belgian Corporate Governance Code 2009, Principle 4.10 and 4.11; Enneking et al. (2015), p. 166.
- 42.
Enneking et al. (2015), p. 166.
- 43.
See art. 3:4 Belgian Code of Companies and Associations.
- 44.
Art. 3:6, §1, second paragraph Belgian Code of Companies and Associations: “Dans la mesure nécessaire à la compréhension de l’évolution des affaires, des résultats ou de la situation de la société, l’analyse comporte des indicateurs clés de performance de nature tant financière que, le cas échéant, non financière ayant trait à l’activité spécifique de la société, notamment des informations relatives aux questions d’environnement et de personnel.” See also Simonart (2016), p. 319. The European Commission first envisaged an obligation to report on non-financial matters, but this did not make it through the legislative process. See De Schutter (2008), pp. 231–232.
- 45.
Art. 3:6, §2 Belgian Code of Companies and Associations.
- 46.
Art. 3:23 Belgian Code of Companies and Associations.
- 47.
Art. 119, §1, 1° Belgian Code of Companies and Associations.
- 48.
Art. 42–47 of the Act of 28 April 2003 concerning supplementary pensions (Loi relative aux pensions complémentaires); art. 58, §1 and art. 88, §1 Act of 3 August 2012 concerning institutions of collective investments (Loi relative aux organismes de placement collectif); Aydogdu (2016b), p. 894; Enneking et al. (2015), p. 162.
- 49.
Enneking et al. (2015), p. 162, footnote 22.
- 50.
A more correct term therefore may be attributability. See also Van Calster (2018), forthcoming.
- 51.
For a more elaborate CSR-oriented analysis, see Demeyere (2015b), pp. 397–399.
- 52.
- 53.
Brüls (2004), p. 312; Cornelis (1989), p. 181; Geens et al. (2000), p. 342; Geens and Wyckaert (2011), p. 340; Ronse et al. (1986), pp. 939 and 948–949; Ronse and Lievens (1986), pp. 137 and 170; Vandekerckhove (2007), p. 32. A shareholder might have set up a subsidiary to prevent its creditors from reaching its assets.
- 54.
- 55.
- 56.
Such as the lack of a division between the assets of the mother company and the subsidiary, no separate bookkeeping and undercapitalization of the subsidiary. Other indications are the fact that (almost) all shares of the subsidiary are owned by the mother, the fact that rules concerning the organs of the subsidiary are not respected, and that in communication with third parties, reference is made to the mother company instead of to the subsidiary, or the fact that decisions are made to the benefit of the mother company but to the detriment of the subsidiary. The indications that were before used for the doctrine of undisclosed agency (prête-nom) to extend insolvency proceedings to the mother company can still be used. On the concepts of disclosed and undisclosed agency, see Busch (2002), pp. 149–160. On the concept of prête-nom, see Samoy (2005), p. 125. On the extension of insolvency proceedings, see, e.g., Braeckmans (1978–1979), pp. 852–854.
- 57.
Cass. be. 16 December 1982, Pas.1983, I, 472.
- 58.
- 59.
See e.g. Court of Appeal Antwerp 12 December 1995, TRV 1996, p. 62; Cass. be. 6 December 1996, C.950260.N, www.cass.be.
- 60.
Wéry (2011), p. 877.
- 61.
- 62.
See e.g., Court of Appeal Bastia 19 October 2011, no. 10/00457, www.legifrance.gouv.fr. This case is based on French law, but is a good example for Belgian law as well since the rules on concealment are nearly identical.
- 63.
Schoonbrood-Wessels (1993), p. 474.
- 64.
- 65.
- 66.
Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 82.
- 67.
Wéry (2011), p. 876.
- 68.
Cauffman (16 February 2005), pp. 15–18.
- 69.
Art. 2:56 Belgian Code of Companies and Associations. See extensively Vandenbogaerde (2009), pp. 82–121.
However, it is not always clear whether a provision of the articles of incorporation really has statutory value and is thus able to engage the liability of the director(s). See Vandenbogaerde (2009), pp. 85–87.
- 70.
Vandenbogaerde (2009), p. 93, no. 108.
- 71.
- 72.
Geens (2016), p. 57, no. 179.
- 73.
Cass. be. 7 November 1997, no. C.960272.F, Arr.Cass. 1997, 1093, TBBR 1998, 153, TRV 1998, 284, note I. Claeys, RCJB 1999, 758, note V. Simonart; Vandenbogaerde (2009), p. 124.
- 74.
See art. XX.225 Belgian Code of Economic Law.
- 75.
See e.g. art. 2:56 Belgian Code of Companies and Associations.
- 76.
Directive 2005/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 May 2005 concerning unfair business-to-consumer commercial practices in the internal market.
- 77.
See also Caucheteux and Roegiers (2015), p. 662.
- 78.
Caucheteux and Roegiers (2015), p. 658.
- 79.
Caucheteux and Roegiers (2015), p. 660.
- 80.
Caucheteux and Roegiers (2015), p. 660.
- 81.
Caucheteux and Roegiers (2015), p. 661.
- 82.
Caucheteux and Roegiers (2015), p. 661.
- 83.
For an overview of the several kinds of codes of conduct, see this article on Dutch law: van der Heijden (2011), p. 5.
- 84.
- 85.
- 86.
- 87.
- 88.
Cass. be. 3 February 1995, no. C.928358.N, Arr.Cass. 1995, 130, RW 1995-96, 226.
- 89.
Art. 1231, §3 Belgian Civil Code.
- 90.
A disclaimer will in Belgian law be invalid when (i) it is contrary to mandatory law, (ii) it concerns an essential obligation of the contract, or (iii) it would exonerate the debtor for his own fraud. See Stijns (2005), p. 163, no. 231; Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 179.
In the other cases, the recharacterised damages clause will be a valid disclaimer and must be upheld.
- 91.
Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 202.
- 92.
- 93.
van der Heijden (2011), p. 8.
- 94.
- 95.
For more details on the functioning of a chain clause, its strengths and weaknesses, see Demeyere (2017a), no. 46 ff.
- 96.
- 97.
- 98.
- 99.
“Tout fait quelconque de l’homme, qui cause à autrui un dommage, oblige celui par la faute duquel il est arrivé, à le réparer.”
- 100.
Simonart (1995), p. 451.
- 101.
See also Commissie tot hervorming van het aansprakelijkheidsrecht (2018), p. 39 ff. The proposal and the explanatory memorandum are available online in a French and Dutch version: https://justitie.belgium.be/nl/bwcc.
- 102.
See article 5.158 of the bill.
- 103.
- 104.
Van Ommeslaghe (2013b), p. 1225, no. 834.
- 105.
Demeyere (2015a), p. 35, no. 79.
- 106.
See also Demeyere (2015b), p. 393.
- 107.
Queinnec and Caillet (2010), p. 654.
- 108.
- 109.
Gallez (2013), p. 163.
- 110.
Cornelis (1989), p. 166.
- 111.
Vandenbogaerde (2009), p. 131.
- 112.
Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), pp. 453 and 459.
- 113.
Queinnec and Caillet (2010), p. 654.
- 114.
Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 423.
- 115.
Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 437 ff.
- 116.
Cass. be. 10 July 1952, Pas. 1952, I, 738, Arr.Cass. 1952, 650; ibid. 563.
- 117.
“Les maîtres et les commettants [sont responsables] du dommage causé par leurs domestiques et préposés dans les fonctions auxquelles ils les ont employés.” This article may in the future be replaced by article 5.157 with a similar scope.
- 118.
The concept of ‘appointee’ is broader than that of ‘employee’, but liability for other appointees than employees is irrelevant in this context.
- 119.
See art. 18 Belgian Employment Contracts Act (act of 3 July 1978): the employee will only be liable for fraud, his culpa lata, and his not accidental culpa levis.
- 120.
See Malinvaud et al. (2014), pp. 473–474.
- 121.
See e.g. Queinnec and Caillet (2010), pp. 652–653.
- 122.
De Moor III.6-37 and III.6-44.
- 123.
Cass. be. 27 February 1970, Pas. 1970, I, 565; Ronse and Lievens (1986), p. 162.
- 124.
Cass. be. 3 January 2002, no. C.99.0035.N, AJT 2001-02, 768, note I. Boone.
- 125.
Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 395.
- 126.
Ronse and Lievens (1986), p. 163.
- 127.
Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 397.
- 128.
Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 398.
- 129.
See, for instance, Cass. be. 7 February 1969, RW 1968–1969, 1545. An employer is, for instance, even liable when his employee causes a traffic accident while driving a company car without a driver’s licence after his working hours. See Cass. be. 2 October 1984, Arr.Cass. 1984–1985, 181.
- 130.
Van Gerven and Van Oevelen (2015), p. 394.
- 131.
See elaborately Mullerat (2010), p. 103 ff.
- 132.
Vandekerckhove (2007), p. 566. However, the lex causae, i.e. the law that will be applied to the case itself, can be applied in order to ensure a reasonable result. See e.g. Schwebel v. Ungar, [1964] 48 DLR (2d) 644.
- 133.
See elaborately Aydogdu (2016a), p. 698, no. 54.
- 134.
Regulation (EU) No 1215/2012 of 12 December 2012 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters, OJ L351, 20/12/2012 (hereafter Brussels I Recast).
- 135.
Art. 1, limb 2 Brussels I Recast.
- 136.
Regulation (EU) No 2015/848 of 20 May 2015 on insolvency proceedings, OJ L141, 05/06/2015.
- 137.
van Calster (2016), p. 60. The Regulation is also applicable when a court of a member state has exclusive jurisdiction as determined in article 24.
- 138.
van Calster (2016), p. 129.
- 139.
van Calster (2016), p. 60.
- 140.
Magnus and Mankowski (2016), p. 995, no. 5.
- 141.
Magnus and Mankowski (2016), no. 6.
- 142.
- 143.
Rechtbank’s-Gravenhage 24 February 2013, Akpan and Vereniging Milieudefensie v. Royal Dutch Shell Plc and Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, no. 3.1.
- 144.
Van Calster (2014), p. 129.
- 145.
van Calster (2016), p. 136.
- 146.
CJEU 30 November 1976, Bier v. Mines de potasse d’Alsace, Case C-21/76.
- 147.
Van Calster (2014), p. 130.
- 148.
CJEU (6th Chamber) 11 January 1990, Dumez France SA, Case C-220/88, at 20.
- 149.
CJEU 7 March 1995, Fiona Shevill and Others v. Presse Alliance SA, Case C-68/93.
- 150.
On article 7, limb 5, see ibid., 129.
- 151.
Van Calster (2014), p. 130.
- 152.
For employment contracts see Gangsted and Van Calster (2016–2017), pp. 83–141.
- 153.
van Calster (2016), p. 78.
- 154.
CJEU 24 June 1981, Elefanten Schuh GmbH v. Pierre Jacqmain, Case C-150/80.
- 155.
E.g. Rechtbank’s-Gravenhage 24 February 2013, Akpan and Vereniging Milieudefensie v. Royal Dutch Shell Plc and Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd.
- 156.
Act of 16 July 2004 holding the code of private international law.
- 157.
Art. 6 (1) Brussels I Recast; Van Calster (2014), p. 129.
- 158.
Art. 2 Belgian PIL Code; Erauw (2009), p. 147, no. 74.
- 159.
Article 4 determines what the domicile or usual place of residence of a person is. See also Erauw (2009), p. 150, no. 79 ff.
- 160.
See Erauw (2009), p. 152, no. 81.
- 161.
Erauw (2009), p. 153, no. 82.
- 162.
Act of 16 June 1993 concerning the punishment of serious violations of the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and on the additional protocols of 8 June 1977, BS 5 August 1993, 17751.
- 163.
Wouters (2003–2004), p. 10.
- 164.
Act of 10 February 1999 concerning serious violations of international humanitarian law, BS 23 March 1999.
- 165.
See Wouters (2003–2004), p. 11.
- 166.
For a brief overview, see Wouters (2003–2004), p. 12.
- 167.
Wouters (2003–2004), p. 12.
- 168.
The USA had, for instance, threatened to block the expansion of the NATO headquarters in Brussels. See Wouters (2003–2004), p. 17.
- 169.
Act of 5 August 2003, BS 7 August 2003, 40506.
- 170.
See Enneking et al. (2015), p. 163.
- 171.
Cass. 29 June 2005, no. P.040482.F, www.juridat.be.
- 172.
For a more complete overview of the case, see Enneking et al. (2015), p. 164.
- 173.
See also the recent and elaborate research on CSR cases by Enneking and others: Enneking et al. (2015), p. 440.
- 174.
Symeonides (2011), p. 185.
- 175.
See also Demeyere (2017b), no. 21.
- 176.
Vandekerckhove (2007), p. 611; van Calster (2016), p. 133. In a couple of veil piercing cases in Belgian law, it shows that the judges apply the lex fori without any explicit consideration as to the conflict of laws question. See Cass. 6 December 1996, no. C.950260.N, www.cass.be; Court of Appeal Antwerp 1 February 1994, TRV 1996, 64; Court of Appeal Antwerp 12 December 1995, TRV 1996, 62.
- 177.
Enneking et al. (2015), pp. 81–82.
- 178.
- 179.
Renvoi relates to the question whether a reference to a certain law, includes a reference to all laws of that state, including the private international law rules of that state. In such a case the latter might refer to yet another applicable law. See van Calster (2016), p. 7.
- 180.
See Parliamentary documents of the Senate, Session 2001–2002, 1 July 2002, 2-12225/1, 31–32.
- 181.
Rome Convention 1980 on the law applicable to contractual obligations.
- 182.
Art. 98, §1, second limb PIL Code.
- 183.
It should neither be a carriage, consumer or insurance contract as articles 5, 6 and 7 respectively determine the law applicable to these cases.
- 184.
Article 3 (1).
- 185.
The habitual residence of a company is its place of central administration (art. 19 (1)).
- 186.
Magnus (2009), p. 31.
- 187.
See articles 31 and 32.
- 188.
Recital 11.
- 189.
CJEU (5th Chamber) 27 September 1988, Kalfelis, Case C-189/87, at 18.
- 190.
Art. 1 (2) (d): “non-contractual obligations arising out of the law of companies […] regarding matters such as the creation […], legal capacity, internal organisation or winding-up of companies […], the personal liability of officers and members as such for the obligations of the company […]”.
- 191.
- 192.
Recital 16; van Calster (2016), p. 252.
- 193.
Rechtbank’s-Gravenhage 24 February 2013, Akpan and Vereniging Milieudefensie v. Royal Dutch Shell Plc and Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, at 4.22.
- 194.
As emphasised by the Commission in the memorandum of the proposal. See the explanation of Article 3, paragraph 3 in Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and the Council on the law applicable to non-contractual obligations, COM (2003) 427 final, 22/07/2003.
- 195.
van Calster (2016), p. 255.
- 196.
Dickinson (2008), p. 310.
- 197.
Van Calster (2014), p. 130.
- 198.
See more elaborately Demeyere (2017b), nos. 27–30.
- 199.
Art. 7 Rome II: “The law applicable to a non-contractual obligation arising out of environmental damage or damage sustained by persons or property as a result of such damage shall be the law determined pursuant to Article 4(1), unless the person seeking compensation for damage chooses to base his or her claim on the law of the country in which the event giving rise to the damage occurred.” A definition of environmental damage can be found in recital 24 of the Regulation. The restrictions to this concept in the Environmental Liability Directive (ELD) are not present in Rome II, but nuclear damage is excluded from Rome II. See art. 1 (2) f Rome II; Directive 2004/35/CE of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 April 2004 on environmental liability with regard to the prevention and remedying of environmental damage.
- 200.
Dickinson (2008), p. 437.
- 201.
See Rechtbank’s-Gravenhage 24 February 2013, Akpan and Vereniging Milieudefensie v. Royal Dutch Shell Plc and Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd.
- 202.
Explanatory Memorandum in Proposal of the European Commission COM (2003) 427 final, 19.
- 203.
Recital 25 specifies that the choice must be made “in accordance with the law of the Member State in which the court is seised.”
- 204.
Dickinson (2008), p. 440.
- 205.
Dickinson (2008), p. 439.
- 206.
Otero Garcia-Castrillon (2011), p. 570.
- 207.
Van Calster (2014), p. 131.
- 208.
If EU law is to determine the event giving rise to the damage, it can be argued that a decision taken in the headquarters of a company is eligible as the event giving rise to the damage. This wide notion of locus delicti commissi is in conformity with the ratio for article 7 envisaged by the Commission. Article 7 should prevent companies from damaging the environment where there is the least protection. See Proposal of the European Commission COM (2003) 427 final, 19–20.
Belgian law gives very little guidance on whether the lex loci delicti commissi should be the place of the actual behaviour or omission causing damage, or the place where the decision for this behaviour or omission was taken (cf. infra). (Baxi gives an overview of the possible interpretations of the locus delicti commissi. See Baxi (1999), no. 276.)
- 209.
Dickinson (2008), pp. 512–513.
- 210.
Recital 34.
- 211.
Dickinson (2008), p. 640.
- 212.
Amended proposal for a European Parliament and Council Regulation on the law applicable to non-contractual obligations, COM (2006) 83 final, 21/02/2006, 25.
- 213.
Dickinson (2008), p. 640.
- 214.
See however Van Calster (2014), p. 131, stating that “the additional ‘rules on safety and conduct’ of Article 17 arguably have less of a calling for environmental litigation than may be prima facie assumed.”
- 215.
Art. 99, §1, 1° Belgian PIL Code.
- 216.
Art. 99, §1, 2° Belgian PIL Code; Claeys (1998), pp. 1524–1528.
- 217.
- 218.
Claeys and Erauw (1993), p. 649.
- 219.
Audit and d’Avout (2010), pp. 275 and 284.
- 220.
Recital 37 Rome I and recital 32 Rome II; CJEU 28 March 2000, Krombach v. Bamberski, Case C-7/98.
- 221.
CJEU 28 March 2000, Krombach v. Bamberski, Case C-7/98, at 22.
- 222.
See also Cass. 4 May 1950, Pas. 1950, I, 624; Cass. 27 February 1986, RCJB1989, 56.
- 223.
BGH 5 November 1980, BGHZ 78, 318, NJW 1981, 522, ZIP 1981, 31, MDR 1981, 314; Dambre (1989), p. 252.
- 224.
Dickinson (2008), p. 634.
- 225.
CJEU (3rd Chamber) 17 October 2013, Unamar, Case C-184/12, at 50.
- 226.
Art. 20 PIL Code; see e.g. Cass. 5 April 2012, C.11.0430.N, www.cass.be.
- 227.
van Calster (2016), p. 190.
- 228.
van Calster (2016), p. 188.
- 229.
van Calster (2016), p. 200.
- 230.
CJEU (5th Chamber) 11 May 2000, Case C-38/98, at 30.
- 231.
van Calster (2016), p. 188.
- 232.
Article 115 is relevant for a judgment regarding the validity, function, dissolution or liquidation of a company.
- 233.
Erauw (2009), p. 278, no. 204. Recognition normally happens as of right without a procedure, but is also possible through a separate claim (art. 22, §2).
- 234.
Erauw (2009), p. 286.
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Demeyere, S., Van Calster, G. (2020). Belgium. In: Kessedjian, C., Cantú Rivera, H. (eds) Private International Law Aspects of Corporate Social Responsibility. Ius Comparatum - Global Studies in Comparative Law, vol 42. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35187-8_3
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