Abstract
Ajit joined the DAE in 1964, switched in 1965 to the Faculty of Economics and became a Fellow of Queens’ College. He carried his Berkeley radicalism to Cambridge; his passionate anti-Vietnam War engagement was manifested on city streets and in Faculty corridors, and famously he systematically demolished Foreign Secretary Michael Stewart’s apologist position at the Oxford Union Teach-in of 1965. Cambridge boasted panoramic India expertise. The flow was two-way: outgoing traffic comprised a bevy of prominent Cambridge economists invited by Mahalanobis to support the Planning Commission’s theoretical exercises underpinning the nascent Indian planning process; while inflows comprised successive cohorts of Indian students including a full spectrum of now-famous names. Ajit was, and remained, closely associated with them all. Ajit successfully led a sustained student–staff campaign seeking curriculum and examination reforms to the Economics Tripos, culminating in the famous Student Sit-in of 1972; Lord Devlin’s Enquiry Report vindicated their stand.
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Notes
- 1.
“Minutes of the 94th meeting of the Committee of Management held in the Department at 2 p.m. on Monday, 17th February, 1964; present: Professor E.A.G. Robinson (Chair); Mr Brown, Mr Goldthorpe , Professor Kahn, Mr Kaldor, Mr Marris, Mr Reddaway (Director), Mr Silberston, Professor Stone, and Mr Davies (Secretary). Page 4 of the Minutes: under Item “New appointments ”: It was agreed to recommend the following new appointments: a.o. “Take-Over Bids and Determinants of Rates of Return”; “A. Singh: appointment for 1 year from 1/10/64 as Research Officer or Junior Research Officer (Fig. 1)”. The meeting ended at 5.25 p.m. Minutes signed by E.A.G. Robinson , dated 16/3/64”.
- 2.
Ajit got the lectureship on the second time of asking; on the first round, he had applied too late, and the post went to Amiya Kumar Bagchi (Harcourt 2008, p. xiii). Geoff adds that “it was not the late application as such; the appointments committee was so impressed by Ajit that they asked him to apply for the next post — a permanent one as it turned out” (personal communication, email dated 16 January 2018). When Amiya Bagchi returned to India, his position was filled by the young Prabhat Patnaik , who refers to Ajit as his “friend, colleague and leader” (Patnaik 2015, p. 33).
- 3.
Keynes’s Indian interests and interactions would have been close to Ajit’s heart: a lecture course on company finance and the stock exchange; central banking including a blueprint for one in India; wheat imports from India; twice the chief guest at the Cambridge Indian Majlis ; spoke at the Cambridge Union in support of greater popular government in India ; wrote a letter to the Cambridge Review in defence of Indian students; all this apart from his well-known official roles in commissions dealing with Indian currency and fiscal affairs; and his very first book, in 1913, on Indian Currency and Finance, a topic on which he delivered lectures in the Cambridge Tripos . Ajit frequently embellished his own work with quotations from Keynes (Chandavarkar 1989).
- 4.
I heard the name Sir Stafford Cripps as a small child around the dining table, as Ajit too must have done. He came with the offer of a version of home rule for India as a dominion after the war in return for Indian support in the war; but Indian majority, and minority, leaders wanted to get more, Churchill wanted to give less, and so the mission “failed” and was followed by the Quit India Movement , which eventually fed into full Independence after the war. Incidentally, Stafford Cripps ’ parliamentary constituency was later inherited by Anthony Wedgwood (Tony) Benn , for whom Francis worked as an economic advisor in the hot decade of the 1970s when Benn was a cabinet minister in the Wilson and Callaghan governments.
- 5.
Ajit and I were chatting outside the Marshall Library when someone, not known to me, stepped out of the Faculty glass spring doors and greeted Ajit as he went past; he walked leaning forward, with a slightly puzzled, lost look on his face, enough to induce an enquiry from me. “That is Wynne Godley ”, said Ajit. “He’s a curious fellow you know: till I corrected him, he would always speak to me in French!”. His explanation was that in Paris his neighbour, the Indian ambassador to France , wore the same headgear as Ajit and spoke fluent French—so this forecasting economist of great reputation, with an Olympian leap over all limitations of transitivity, deduced he should use French with Ajit! Well, I checked this out: Wynne says in his Harrison/Macfarlane Interview that he spent a year in Paris after Oxford; that was the year the Indian ambassador was His Excellency (as ambassadors like to call themselves) Hardit Singh , OBE, CIE, a turban-wearing Sikh. Ajit would have been tickled pink to know that Hardit, of Balliol and an Oxford golf blue, was the original Flying Sikh (Milkha Singh , the legendary 400-metres runner being the second, and Ajit himself, the globe trotter, the third) and had been credited with several kills flying fighters for the Royal Flying Corps and later RAF in the First World War, and as an observing, hair-retaining turbaned Sikh had had a special helmet designed to go over the turban when flying; and even more delighted to learn that he had played county cricket for Sussex between 1914 and 1930. He subsequently served as the Prime Minister of Patiala State in Punjab; was in the ICS, then the IFS, with a final posting in Paris between 1949 and 1956, during which time Wynne made his acquaintance, and cunning linguistic discovery. I think the two sardars would have enjoyed meeting up over a lassi—if His Excellency could find a time machine to fly a few decades into the future. The time I spent in sniffing this out was obviously not wasted, but clearly too late to check if Ajit was aware of the exploits of his illustrious compatriot.
Ajit might have happily had a tumbler also with Wynne himself, had he known—as Francis Cripps informed me—that “his grandfather, Arthur Godley (later Lord Kilbracken), was Permanent Under Secretary for India from 1880 to 1909 and argued the case for protection of Indian industries against the English textile lobby” (personal communication, email dated 10 February 2018).
- 6.
Stone was invited in 1950 to advise the National Income Committee on methods of estimation.
- 7.
When Mahalanobis extended the invitation, Ramchandra Guha reports Joan to have said: “I might be able to knock some sense into the heads of the economists in your country” (Guha 2007, p. 215). For a treatment of her awkward relationship with Indian planning , see Saith (2008); Ashok Rudra (1996) provides a discursive, simultaneously incisive and entertaining account of the visits in his volume on P. C. Mahalanobis . When in India, Joan was perpetually frustrated by the lethargy and compromises of Indian planning and often let off steam by haranguing some of her ex-Cambridge Indian students; India had the problems, China had the solutions, was her general refrain—and of course she had a point.
- 8.
Maurice Dobb , apart from pointing out political problems in the realisation of the Indian planning exercise, also delivered a set of seminal lectures at the Delhi School of Economics on key problems of economic development dealing with the production, mobilisation and utilisation of economic surplus.
- 9.
Vela Velupillai (2015a) has written eloquently about his supervisor Richard Goodwin’s “lifelong association with the country”, which started with Goodwin’s India Decade, beginning from 1954 to 1955 when Mahalanobis invited him to the Indian Statistical Institute, where he constructed the first Input–Output Table for the Indian economy, alongside Ragnar Frisch (see also Velupillai 2015b). Apart from his other accomplishments, Goodwin was a serious painter. Pasinetti (2007, p. 212) informs us that “for some years he spent summer in England, spring and autumn in Siena and winter in India, as the guest of a generous friend (living in a beautiful Le Corbusier-designed house), who gave him the opportunity and pleasure to devote as much time as he could to painting. A life finally fulfilled? Not exactly”. The Le Corbusier connection, however, took him not to Ajit’s hometown, Le Corbusier’s Chandigarh , but instead to the villa designed by Le Corbusier in Ahmedabad for the Sarabhai family . I personally recall a pleasantly surprised Wahid Mahmud , my Ph.D. contemporary at Cambridge whose Kaleckian Ph.D. Goodwin supervised, telling me he had just returned after meeting him by the side of the Cam where Goodwin had set up his easel for the day. Velupillai also refers to Goodwin being something of a recluse, with very few connections with the Faculty; apart from the two naturals, Joan Robinson and Geoff Harcourt (as reported by Geoff), the two exceptions he chose to make were Ajit Singh and Prabhat Patnaik .
- 10.
The book was an exercise in checking the consistency and feasibility of the Third Five Year Plan .
- 11.
In his extensive appreciation of Reddaway’s legacy to economics, Ajit (Singh 2008, pp. 9–11) notes both the critical review by Padma Desai (who complained about the lack of equations in Reddaway’s exposition) and Reddaway’s robust rebuttal, inter alia providing a succinct statement of his own objections to any general necessity of expressing economic reasoning in the form of mathematical reasoning.
- 12.
Hans Singer interviewed by Keith Tribe ; Tribe (2002, p. 59).
- 13.
Gadgil was later the founder and first Director of the Gokhale Institute of Economics and Politics in Pune and served as the Vice Chairman of the Indian Planning Commission , apart from being known for the Gadgil Formula which he devised for managing Indian federal finances.
- 14.
In Whitehall, Keynes is said to have oriented the work of James Meade and Richard Stone towards the development of national accounts and the measurement of national income partly to underpin his analysis and policy conclusions in his How to Pay for the War (Keynes 1940). On this, see also Stone (1984) on the Stone–Meade production of the initial sketchy national accounts; Stone incidentally does not mention Keynes in this regard.
- 15.
Amartya Sen , Gautam Mathur and Manmohan Singh each won the coveted Adam Smith Prize . Joan Robinson apparently said Gautam Mathur, whose Ph.D. she had supervised, was the best student that she had ever had; Meghnad Desai (2015) writes “Austin Robinson regarded I.G. Patel as the best tutee he had ever had”; and Geoff Harcourt reports that “Robin Matthews said Manmohan Singh was the brightest undergraduate he ever taught” (personal communication, email dated 16 January 2018); and Manmohan Singh also said with a sense of pride that “Robin Matthews did him the honour of always having one-on-one supervisions for him” (personal communication, in conversation, dated 17 November 2017). Gautam Mathur and Manmohan Singh served in the Department of Economics at Panjab University Chandigarh where Ajit was a student.
- 16.
- 17.
See: Teach-in at U.C. Berkeley , https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teach-in.
- 18.
Lyndon Johnson and his officials “were privately contemptuous of the British Prime Minister, and regarded his repeated engagement with peace initiatives with ill-concealed scorn. Responding to one request for a summit meeting, LBJ replied (with typical profanity) ‘[we] have got enough pollution around here already without Harold coming over with his fly open and his pecker hanging out, peeing all over me’” (Hughes 2016).
- 19.
Michael Stewart had himself been President of the Union in 1929.
- 20.
- 21.
“We have not attempted to deal with the arguments put forward by the Foreign Secretary. We have simply confined ourselves to an analysis of the facts upon which his arguments are based. Mr. Stewart replied to a questioner that ‘every fact I put before you is documented and can be verified’. In our opinion most of the facts upon which Mr. Stewart relies are either wholly inaccurate, or at best are so selective and over-simplified as to be of very little evidential value. This pamphlet sets the record straight” (Gittings and Singh 1965, p. 2). They then proceed to dissect and demolish the entire basis for Stewart’s speech , and the Labour government’s basis for supporting the American war in Vietnam . “We have shown that the origins of the present Vietnam crisis can be traced back to the failure to hold free elections in 1956, and to the repressive nature of Diem’s social, economic and political policies. We have also shown that the weight of the impartial evidence of the International Control Commission lies against South Vietnam and the United States, whose violations of the Geneva agreements ante-date those for North Vietnam by five years” (ibid., p. 22).
- 22.
The BBC Archives including this item are apparently now with Getty Images. The BBC record runs to a length of a little over an hour; the teach-in event lasted 8½ hours, so is it uncertain what part, if any, of Ajit’s individual participation in the debates would be covered.
- 23.
Extreme as it might appear, the account is true to reality; Wilson’s visit to Cambridge was in October 1967. Geraint Hughes puts it thus: “Wilson himself faced a barrage of invective and fury from anti-war activists, backbench MPs and press critics which was as vitriolic as that which Blair received forty years later. In April 1965 the satirical journal Private Eye printed a front page cartoon by Gerald Scarfe showing Wilson applying his tongue to Johnson’s rear — an image which makes the more recent renditions of Blair as Bush’s lapdog look tame. Wilson also faced public displays of hostility which at times descended into violence. After one visit to Cambridge in October 1967 the Prime Minister was mobbed in his car by protesters who called him a ‘right-wing bastard’ and a ‘Vietnam murderer’, and he had to be rescued by police” (Hughes 2016).
- 24.
A history of Cambridge University makes a reference to Healey’s troubled visit: “When Dennis Healey , then Minister of Defence, came to speak in Cambridge in 1968, there were battles between student factions. Enoch Powell was due to speak at Queens’ College but threats of violence caused the event to be cancelled. There were sit-ins, such as the one in the Old Schools in 1969, to protest about a visit to Churchill College by the American Ambassador ” (Evans 2010, p. 49).
- 25.
See Manohar Singh Gill (2015). M. S. Gill was then an officer in the Indian Administrative Service serving in the Punjab cadre; he later gained a fine reputation as India’s Chief Election Commissioner; was a member of Rajya Sabha, the upper house of parliament; and then served as a Cabinet Minister (for Sports, shifted after the controversial Commonwealth Games, to Statistics), under Manmohan Singh ; he was elected an Honorary Fellow of Queens’ College in 2001.
- 26.
Personal communication, email dated 17 December 2017.
- 27.
Suzanne Paine (1946–1985) was closely involved with the Cambridge left under Ajit’s wing; she supervised dissertations of many of the South Asia cohort of research scholars , including Ajit Ghose , Mahboob Hossain , Abhijit Sen , Atiqur Rahman and Muhammad Muqtada . Along with Ajit, she was a keen supporter of the South Asia Workshop and served as an effective lieutenant in Ajit’s band; they also travelled together to China at the height of the Cultural Revolution . Her premature demise, at just 39, was clearly a serious loss, also personally for Ajit.
- 28.
I found it striking that if one enters “Vietnam ” in an Edit-Find on Ajit’s 41-page CV updated at the end of 2014, it yields zero hits. Vietnam wasn’t a country he visited or an economy that he worked on subsequently although, for very many years after 1975, he would surely have received a very special welcome.
- 29.
The quotations attributed in the following account to Professors Richard Stone and Robert Neild , Mr. Alexander and Lord Devlin are all drawn from the Evidence and Cross-examination, and testimonies submitted to the Enquiry. See: Cambridge University Archives, Devlin Enquiry Report and Papers, 1972–1973, UA.GBR/0265/Devlin.
- 30.
The document is reproduced in full as Appendix A.
- 31.
Jo Bradley , personal communication.
- 32.
Brian Van Arkadie reports that Ajit did this also for him and for Bob to ensure that they would not get into trouble subsequently with university authorities.
- 33.
See Devlin (1973, p. 28).
- 34.
Dasgupta is peeved by the exclusionary nature of the “secret seminar ” of the senior Keynesians held in Richard Kahn’s rooms at King’s, but appears to see no contradiction here with his membership of the ultra-elite secret society, the Cambridge Apostles , which was historically characterised by streaks of dynastic nepotism, and often (though not always) tended to work virtually as a lodge easing pathways for one another (see Vervaecke 2011). Dasgupta would have been in the company, among others, of his mentor James Mirrlees and compatriot Amartya Sen . More considered and pertinent, though, is the insider’s assessment of Luigi Pasinetti (2007, p. 201), who notes that the “secret” seminar “played a major role in the development of new concepts and ideas”; but he also refers to the “unwise behaviour” (ibid., p. 203) of the senior group which “should have become conscious of the collateral damage that such a peculiar arrangement inevitably would generate” (ibid., p. 202); it “irritated many participants (especially the young)” and “generated a kind of blockage to potential contributors, who otherwise might have helped the strongly sought ‘revolution’ to explode” (ibid.). So the secrecy scored many theoretical successes, but also damaging own goals undermining longer-term strength and sustainability. The Queens’ Seminar organised by Ajit and colleagues was open in principle and included doctoral researchers, though it was ignored by the neoclassicals who grouped around their own Churchill seminar run by Hahn ; there was little overlap or love lost between the two, so issues of “closure” across the two groups practising mutual disdain are to some extent merely notional.
- 35.
Dasgupta (2010) believes “that if people were to sit together to thrash things out, they would come away in broad agreement” and declares himself “a thoroughbred democrat” (though he “was not politically engaged”). He also captained his school cricket team; and we have it from him that he also participated in some marches against the Bomb and the Vietnam War in London—one wonders if these might have been organised by Ajit and his political partners. All this should have provided ample common ground between him and, say, Ajit Singh. But perhaps other things got in the way: Dasgupta confesses: “I’m by temperament not a scholar, I’ve rarely ever thought about a problem or read a book without an eventual publication in mind; that’s why I could never become an ‘intellectual’, let alone a ‘public’ intellectual; in fact I’m hugely wary of them; … I’m drawn to professionals, they know what they are talking about ” (Dasgupta 2010).
- 36.
Francis Cripps , personal communication, email dated 10 February 2018.
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Saith, A. (2019). Cambridge: Home from Home. In: Ajit Singh of Cambridge and Chandigarh. Palgrave Studies in the History of Economic Thought. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12422-9_4
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