Abstract
This chapter provides a summary of the landscape of shadow education globally. It traces the historical development of the concept of shadow education and highlights the concept’s ambiguities. Through a review of the scholarship, it also presents contemporary discourses about shadow education and summarizes the distinctive features of shadow education in different countries including in East Asia, Europe, and North America. By showing how pervasive it is globally, the authors demonstrate the importance of understanding shadow education, especially with respect to students’ evolving learning cultures and the ecology of education.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Anderson, T., & Kohler, H. (2013). Education fever and the East Asian fertility puzzle: A case study of low fertility in South Korea. Asian Population Studies, 9(2), 196–215.
ASER Centre. (Various years). Annual status of education report. New Delhi: PRATHAM.
Aspinall, R., & Roesgaard, M. H. (2008). Japanese education and the cram school business: Functions, challenges and perspectives of the Juku. The Journal of Japanese Studies, 34(1), 121–125.
Aurini, J., & Davies, S. (2004). The transformation of private tutoring: Education in a franchise form. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 29(3), 419–438.
Aurini, J., & Davies, S. (2013). Supplementary education in a changing organizational field: The Canadian case. In J. Aurini, S. Davies, & J. Dierkes (Eds.), Out of the shadows: The global intensification of supplementary education. Bingley: Emerald Publishing; International Perspectives on Education and Society, 22, 155–170.
Bae, S., Oh, H., Kim, H., Lee, C., & Oh, B. (2010). The impact of after-school programs on educational equality and private tutoring expenses. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(3), 349–361.
Baily, S. (2012). Framing the World Bank education strategy 2020 to the Indian context: Alignments, challenges, and opportunities. In C. S. Collins & A. W. Wiseman (Eds.), Education strategy in the developing world: Revisiting the World Bank’s education policy (pp. 371–393). Bingley: Emerald Books.
Baker, D. P., Akiba, M., LeTendre, G. K., & Wiseman, A. W. (2001). Worldwide shadow education: Outside-school learning, institutional quality of schooling, and cross-national mathematics achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(1), 1–17.
Baker, D. P., & LeTendre, G. K. (2005). National differences, global similarities. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Becker, R., & Lauterbach, W. (2010). Bildung als Privileg – Ursachen, Mechanismen und Wirkungen. In R. Becker & W. Lauterbach (Eds.), Bildung als Privileg. Erklärungen und Befunde zu den Ursachen der Bildungsungleichheit (pp. 11–49). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag.
BERD (Benesse Education Research and Development Center). (2007). Chōsa dēta kurippu! Kodomo to kyōiku: Juku, naraigoto – dai 1 kai [Survey data clip about children and education: Juku and other learning activities, part 1]. Retrieved August 10, 2014 from http://berd.benesse.jp/berd/data/dataclip/clip0006/clip0006a.pdf.
Boudon, R. (1974). Education, opportunity, and social inequality: Changing prospects in Western society. New York: Wiley.
Boyle, D. (2015, September 17). Let’s call a halt to this tutoring arms race. The Guardian. Retrieved June 14, 2016 from http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/17/tutoring-arms-race-ethnic-minority.
Bray, M. (1999). The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for planners (Fundamentals of Educational Planning No. 61). Paris: UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning.
Bray, M. (2009). Confronting the shadow education system: What government policies for what private tutoring? Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).
Bray, M. (2010). Researching shadow education: Methodological challenges and directions. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 3.
Bray, M. (2011). The challenge of shadow education: Private tutoring and its implications for policy makers in the European Union. Brussels: European Commission.
Bray, M. (2017). Schooling and its supplements: Changing global patterns and implications for comparative education. Comparative Education Review, 61(3), 469–491.
Bray, M., & Kwo, O. (2014). Regulating private tutoring for public good: Policy options for supplementary education in Asia. Bangkok: UNESCO.
Bray, M., & Kwok, P. (2003). Demand for private supplementary tutoring: Conceptual considerations, and socio-economic patterns in Hong Kong. Economics of Education Review, 22, 611–620.
Bray, M., & Lykins, C. (2012). Shadow education: Private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy makers in Asia. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
Breen, R., & Goldthorpe, J. H. (1997). Explaining educational differentials: Towards a formal rational action theory. Rationality and Society, 9, 275–305.
Buchmann, C., Condron, D. J., & Roscigno, V. J. (2010). Shadow education, American style: Test preparation, the SAT and college enrollment. Social Forces, 89(2), 435–461.
Bukowski, P. (2017). Shadow education within the European Union from the perspective of investment in education. The European Expert Network on Economics of Education. Retrieved from http://www.eenee.de/eenee-Home/EENEE/Ad-Hoc-Questions.html.
Byun, S. (2010). Does policy matter in shadow education spending? Revisiting the effects of the high school equalization policy in South Korea. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11, 83–96.
Byun, S., & Kim, K. (2010). Educational inequality in South Korea: The widening socioeconomic gap in student achievement. In E. Hannum, H. Park, & Y. Butler (Eds.), Globalization, changing demographics, and educational challenges in East Asia (pp. 155–182). Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing.
Byun, S., & Park, H. (2012). The academic success of East Asian American youth: The role of shadow education. Sociology of Education, 85(1), 40–60.
Caritas, Community and Higher Education Service. (2010). Private supplementary tutoring of secondary students: Investigation report. Hong Kong: Caritas. (in Chinese). Available at http://klncc.caritas.org.hk/private/document/644.pdf.
Cayubit, R. F. O., Castor, J. Y. S., Divina, E. J. S., Francia, R. M. S., Nolasco, R. T. P., Villamiel, A. J. E., et al. (2014). A Q analysis on the impact of shadow education on the academic life of high school students. Psychological Studies, 59(3), 252–259.
Cheo, R., & Quah, E. (2005). Mothers, maids and tutors: An empirical evaluation of their effect on children’s academic grades in Singapore. Education Economics, 13(3), 269–285.
Choi, J. (2012) Unequal access to shadow education and its impacts on academic outcomes: Evidence from Korea. Paper presented at spring 2012 meeting of ISA RC 28 ‘Economic Transformation and Social Stratification in Comparative Perspectives’, 10–13 May, Hong Kong.
Choi, S. G. (2009). A study on the academic life and culture of Korean high school students. Research Report of the Korean Educational Development Institute.
Choi, Y., & Park, H. (2016). Shadow education and educational inequality in South Korea: Examining effect heterogeneity of shadow education on middle school seniors’ achievement test scores. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 44, 22–32.
Chou, C. P. (2008). The impact of neo-liberalism on Taiwanese higher education. International Perspectives on Education and Society, 9, 297–311.
Chou, C. P., & Ching, G. (2012). Taiwan education at the cross-road: When globalization meets localization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Chou, C. P., & Yuan, J. K. S. (2011, Spring). Buxiban in Taiwan. IIAS Newsletter.
Chua, A. (2011). Battle hymn of the tiger mother. New York, NY: Penguin Press.
Crew, J. (2016). Number of state school pupils receiving private tuition has risen by a third, report reveals. Independent. Retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/state-school-pupils-private-tuition-risen-third-a7231406.html.
Crotty, J. M. (2012). Global private tutoring market will surpass $102.8 billion by 2018. Forbes Magazine. http://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesmarshallcrotty2012/10/30/global-private-tutoring-market-will-surpass-102-billion-by-2018. Accessed November 30, 2013.
Cummings, W. K. (1997). Private education in Eastern Asia. In W. K. Cummings & P. G. Altbach (Eds.), The challenge of Eastern Asian education: Implications for America (pp. 135–152). Albany: State University of New York Press.
Dang, H. A. (2007). The determinants and impact of private tutoring classes in Vietnam. Economics of Education Review, 26(6), 683–698.
Dang, H. A., & Rogers, F. (2008). How to interpret the growing phenomenon of private tutoring: Human capital deepening, inequality increasing, or waste of resources? (Policy Research Working Paper No. 4530). Washington, DC: World Bank.
Davies, S., Aurini, J., & Quirke, L. (2002). New markets for private education in Canada. Education Canada, 42(3), 36–41.
Davies, S., & Guppy, N. (2010). The schooled society: An introduction to the sociology of education (2nd ed.). Toronto: Oxford University Press.
Dawson, W. (2010). Private tutoring and mass schooling in East Asia: Reflections of inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 14–24.
de Castro, B. V., & de Guzman, A. B. (2014). A structural equation model of the factors affecting Filipino university students’ shadow education satisfaction and behavioural intentions. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 34(4), 417–435.
de Silva, W. A., Gunawardena, C., Jayaweera, S., Perena, L., Rupasinghe, S., & Wijetunge, S. (1991). Extra-school instruction, social equity and educational quality (Sri Lanka). Report prepared for the International Development Research Centre, Singapore.
Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1987 [1980]). A thousand plateaus (B. Massumi, Trans.). London: Continuum.
Dierkes, J. (2010). Teaching in the shadow: Operators of small shadow education institutions in Japan. Asian Pacific Educational Review, 11, 25–35.
Doherty, C., & Dooley, K. (2018). Responsibilising parents: The nudge towards shadow tutoring. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 39(4), 551–566.
Dohmen, D., Erbes, A., Fuchs, K., & Günzel, J. (2008). Was wissen wir über Nachhilfe? Sachstand und Auswertung der Forschungsliteratur zu Angebot, Nachfrage und Wirkungen. Bielefeld: Bertelsmann.
Dworkin, A. G. (2005). The No Child Left Behind Act: Accountability, high-stakes testing, and roles for sociologists. Sociology of Education, 78, 170–174.
Entrich, S. R. (2014). German and Japanese education in the shadow—Do out-of-school lessons really contribute to class reproduction? IAFOR Journal of Education, 2(2), 17–53.
Entrich, S. R. (2018). Shadow education and social inequalities in Japan: Evolving patterns and conceptual implications. Gewerbestrasse: Springer.
Fung, A. (2012). Cram schooling in Hong Kong: The privatization of public education. Asian Anthropology, 2(1), 179–195.
George, C. (1992, April 4). Time to come out of the shadows. Straits Times, p. 28.
Global Industry Analysts Inc. (2017). Private tutoring: A global strategic business report. Retrieved from http://www.strategyr.com/pressMCP-1597.asp.
Government Information Office Portal, Taiwan. (2010). http://portal.gio.gov.tw/taiwan/edu/tutor/.
Grodsky, E., Warren, J. R., & Felts, E. (2008). Testing and social stratification in American education. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 385–404.
Gubernick, L., & Burger, K. (1997, April 21). Girls always have trouble in math. Forbes, pp. 120–121.
Guill, K. (2010), Individuelle, familiäre und schulische Prädiktoren der Inanspruchnahme von Nachhilfeunterricht in Mathematik [Individual, family and school level predictors of attending private tutoring in mathematics] (PhD thesis). Technische Universität Dortmund, Institut für Schulentwicklungsforschung. (in German).
Guill, K., & Bonsen, M. (2011). Prädiktoren der Inanspruchnahme von Nachhilfe—unterricht am Beginn der Sekundarstufe I. Empirische Pädagogik, 25(3), 307–330.
Gunasekara, P. D. J. (2009). A study of the attendance patterns of GCE (A/L) student at school. Sri Lankan Journal of Educational Research, 11(1), 56–89.
Haasch, G. (2000). Bildung und Erziehung in Japan. Ein Handbuch zur Geschichte, Philosophie, Politik und Organisation des japanischen Bildungswesens von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. Berlin: Ed. Colloquium.
Hajar, A. (2018). Shadow education and the curriculum and culture of schooling in South Korea. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 1–2.
Heyneman, S. P. (2011). Private tutoring and social cohesion. New York, NY: Routledge.
Ho, A. H., & Wang, Y. (2016). A Chinese model of education in New Zealand. In C. Chou & J. Spangler (Eds.), Chinese education models in a global age: Education in the Asia-Pacific region—Issues, concerns and prospects (Vol. 31). Singapore: Springer.
Ho, N. H. (2010). Hong Kong’s shadow education: Private tutoring in Hong Kong. The Hong Kong Anthropologist, 4(10), 62–85.
Hunt, J. (2008). Make room for daddy… and mommy: Helicopter parents are here! The Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education, 4(1), 9–11.
Hwang, M.-Y., & Won, H.-H. (2017). The effects of learning clinic program on cognitive processing styles for learning maladjusted children. The Korean Society Fisheries and Sciences Education, 29(3), 909–919.
Ireson, J. (2004). Private tutoring: How prevalent and effective is it? London Review of Education, 2(2), 109–122.
Ireson, J., & Rushforth, K. (2004). Mapping the nature and extent of private tutoring at transition points in education. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Conference, UMIST, Manchester.
Ireson, J., & Rushforth, K. (2011). Private tutoring at transition points in the English education system: Its nature, extent and purpose. Research Papers in Education, 26(1), 1–19.
Jayachandran, S. (2014). Incentives to teach badly: After-school tutoring in developing countries. Journal of Development Economics, 108, 190–205.
Je, M. J. (2002). An analysis on preference of the trend toward shadow education (MA dissertation). Department of Education, Hongik University.
Jerrim, J. (2017). Private tuition and out-of-school study, new international evidence. The Sutton Trust.
Jung, J.-H. (2016). The concept of care in curriculum studies. New York, NY: Routledge.
Jung, J.-H. (2018). Decolonizing educational/curriculum studies in East Asia: Problematizing shadow education in South Korea. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 19(2), 269–281.
Kao, G., & Thompson, J. (2003). Racial and ethnic stratification in educational achievement and attainment. Annual Review of Sociology, 29(1), 417–442.
Kim, J. (2003). The effect of private lessons on academic achievement. Korean Journal of Sociology of Education, 13(3), 45–65.
Kim, Y. C. (2005). Post-colonialism and the reconceptualization of Korean curriculum studies. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 21(1), 57–75.
Kim, Y. C. (2008). Alternatively, send your children to hakwon. Seoul: Brenz.
Kim, Y. C. (2016). Shadow education and the curriculum and culture of schooling in South Korea. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kim, Y. C., & Kim, P. S. (2012). Hakwon does not die; fathers die: Secrets of Korean education that Obama did not know. Paju, South Korea: Academy Press.
Kirby, P. (2016). Shadow Schooling: Private tuition and social mobility in the UK. London: The Sutton Trust.
Klemm, K., & Klemm, A. (2010). Ausgaben für Nachhilfe: Teurer und unfairer Ausgleich für fehlende individuelle Förderung. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung.
Konakayama, A., & Matsui, T. (2008). Gakkōgai kyōiku tōshi no gakuryoku ni oyobosu eikyō ni kansuru ikkōsatsu [An empirical study on how extra school education affects academic achievement of Japanese high school students]. Tokai University School of Political Science and Economics Bulletin, 40, 131–158.
Kong, O., Yu, X., & Zhao, X. (2017). Private tutoring. In J. Morgan, Q. Gu, & F. Li (Eds.), Handbook of education in China (pp. 333–355). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Kuan, P. Y. (2008). The effect of cram schooling for math: A counterfactual analysis. Presented at the summer meeting of Research Committee on Social Stratification and Mobility (RC 28), Stanford University, CA.
Kuan, P. Y. (2011). Effects of cram schooling on mathematics performance: Evidence from junior high students in Taiwan. Comparative Education Review, 55(3), 342–368.
Kwok, P. L. (2004). Emergence of demand for private supplementary tutoring in Hong Kong: Argument, indicators and implications. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 3, 1–14. Retrieved March 2, 2015 from http://edb.org.hk/HKTC/download/journal/j3/1.pdf.
Lee, C. J., Park, H. J., & Lee, H. S. (2009). Shadow education systems. In G. Sykes, B. L. Schneider, & D. N. Plank (Eds.), Handbook of educational policy research (pp. 901–919). New York: Routledge.
Lee, J., & Zhou, M. (2015). The Asian American achievement paradox. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Lee, J. K. (2007a). Verification of the effect of private tutoring on college entrance. Korean Education and Employment Panel (KEEP) Academic Conference Material, 19–34.
Lee, J. K. (2007b). Two worlds of private tutoring: The prevalence and causes of after-school math tutoring in Korea and the United States. Teachers College Record, 5, 1207–1234.
Lee, K. (2013). An analysis of the effects of after-school and EBS Internet/ broadcast on the private education expenditure. Korean Journal of Sociology of Education, 23(3), 111–138.
Lee, S., & Shouse, R. (2011). The impact of prestige orientation on shadow education in South Korea. American Sociology of Education, 84(3), 212–224.
Lee, S. H., & Brinton, M. (2014). Elite education and social capital: The case of South Korea. Sociology of Education, 69(3), 177–192.
Lett, D. P. (1991). Pursuit of status: The making of South Korea’s “new” urban middle class. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center.
Li, L. (2009). Investigation report: 25% students spent more than 8 hours alone during winter holiday without supervision from parents. Beijing Evening News, Beijing. (in Chinese). http://gaokao.eduu.com/e/20090203/4b8bc9afc6f49.shtml. Accessed October 30, 2010.
Liu, J. (2012). Does cram schooling matter? Who goes to cram schools? Evidence from Taiwan. International Journal of Educational Development, 32(1), 46–52.
Livingstone, D. W., Hart, D., & Davie. (2003). Public attitudes towards education in Ontario 2002: The 14th OISE/UT survey. Toronto: Orbit.
Loyalka, P. K., & Zakharov, A. (2014). Does shadow education help students prepare for college? International Laboratory for Educational Policy Analysis No. WP BRP 15.EDU/2014.
Mahmud, R., & Kenayathulla, H. B. (2017). Shadow education: Patterns and scale of private supplementary tutoring in English in secondary education at urban Dhaka in Bangladesh. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 48(5), 1–15.
Majumdar, M. (2014). The shadow school system and new class divisions in India (TRG Poverty and Education Working Paper Series 2).
Malik, M. A. (2017). Shadow education: Evolution, flaws and further development of the term. Social Sciences and Education Research Review, 4(1), 6–29.
Marimuthu, T., Singh, J. S., Ahmad, K., Lim, H. K., Mukherjee, H., Oman, S., et al. (1991). Extra-school instruction, social equity and educational quality. Report prepared for the International Development Research Centre, Singapore.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology—Japan [MEXT]. (2008). Kodomo no gakkōgai de no gakushū seikatsu ni kansuru jittai chōsa hōkoku [National report about the out-of-school learning activities of children]. Retrieved August 10, 2014 from http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/20/08/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2009/03/23/1196664.pdf.
Mori, I. (2015). The effects of supplementary tutoring on students’ mathematics achievement in Japan and the United States. Tokyo: The University of Tokyo.
Mori, I., & Baker, D. (2010). The origin of universal shadow education: What the supplemental education phenomenon tells us about the postmodern institution of education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 37–48.
Nath, S. R. (2007). Remunerated supplementary tutoring in out-of-school study in rural Bangladesh (BRAC Research Report). Dhaka, Bangladesh: Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2012). PISA 2009 technical report. Retrieved September 2, 2017 from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/50036771.pdf.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2018). PISA 2015: Results in focus. Retrieved July 20, 2018 from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf.
Ozaki, M. (2015). A juku childhood: Children’s experiences in juku attendance and its relation to their well-being in Japan (Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of Bath, Claverton Down, UK.
Pallegedara, A. (2011). Demand for private tuition classes under the free education policy: Evidence based on Sri Lanka. Munich: Munich personal RePEc archive. Retrieved from http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchende/31969/1/MPRA_paper_31969.pdf.
Paramita, S. (2015). “We follow the private tutors not the teachers”: An ethnographic insight into educational practices among the students of an Indian city. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences, 4(4), 819–840.
Park, S. (2008). Policy evaluation on private tutoring countermeasures: After-school program and EBS KSAT teaching. The Journal of Educational Administration, 26(1), 391–411.
Park, H., Buchmann, C., Choi, J., & Merry, J. J. (2016). Learning beyond the school walls: Trends and implications. Annual Review of Sociology, 42(1), 231–252.
Park, S., Lim, H., & Choi, H. (2015). “Gangnam Mom”: A qualitative study on the information behaviors of Korean helicopter mothers. In iConference 2015 Proceedings. Retrieved from https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/73636/124_ready.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y.
Ristić, D. Z., & Jokić, B. (2013). Equity issues related to the use of private tutoring services. In B. Jokić (Ed.), Emerging from the shadow: A comparative qualitative exploration of private tutoring in Eurasia (pp. 267–301). Zagreb: NEPC.
Roesgaard, M. H. (2006). Japanese education and the cram school business: Functions, challenges and perspectives of the juku. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press.
Rohlen, T. P. (1980). The juku phenomenon: An exploratory essay. Journal of Japanese Studies, 6(2), 207–242.
Sato, M. (2005, July 28). “juku Boom:” Cram schools cash in on failure of public schools. The Japan Times. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2005/07/28/life/cram-schools-cash-in-on-failure-of-public-schools/#.U4nEtCiOz3A.
Schacter, J. (2000). Does individual tutoring produce optimal learning? American Educational Research Journal, 37(3), 801–829.
Schneider, T. (2006). Die Inanspruchnahme privat bezahlter Nachhilfe. Ein kaum beachtetes Thema in der Bildungsforschung. In C. Tully (Ed.), Lernen in flexibilisierten Welten. Wie sich das Lernen der Jugend verändert (pp. 131–144). Weinheim and München: Juventa.
Schneider, B., & Lee, Y. (1990). A model for academic success: The school and home environment of East Asian students. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 21(4), 358–377.
Schomburg, H., & Teichler, U. (2002). Employment and work of university graduates in Japan and Germany. In U. Teichler & G. Trommsdorff (Eds.), Challenges of the 21st century in Japan and German (pp. 91–105). Lengerich: Pabst Publisher.
Schümer, G. (1999). Lehrer in Japan. Arbeitsbedingungen und Arbeitsethos, 6(99), 30–35.
Seth, M. J. (2002). Education fever: Society, politics, and the pursuit of schooling in South Korea. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Shrake, E. (2010). Cram schools. In E. W. Chen & G. J. Yoo (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Asian American issues today (Vol. 1, pp. 211–215). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC.
Silova, I., Budiene, V., & Bray, M. (2006). Education in a hidden market place: Monitoring of private tutoring. New York: Open Society Institute.
Song, X. M. (2016). Chapter 4: Fairness in educational assessment in China: Historical practices and contemporary challenges. In S. Scott, D. E. Scott, & C. F. Webber (Eds.), Assessment in education: Implications for leadership (pp. 67–89). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
Spring, J. (2010). The politics of American education. New York, NY: Routledge.
Statistics Korea. (2016). The survey of private education expenses for elementary school to high school. Seoul: National Statistics Korea.
Stevenson, D. L., & Baker, D. P. (1992). Shadow education and allocation in formal schooling: Transition to university in Japan. American Journal of Sociology, 97(6), 1639–1657.
Sun, M., & Braeye, S. (2012). Comparing supplementary ethnic schools and the academic achievement of Chinese immigrant students in Quebec and Flanders. Diversité urbaine, 121, 105–124.
Tanner, E., Day, N., Tennant, R., Turczuk, O., Ireson, J., Rushforth, K., et al. (2009). Private tuition in England (p. 77). London: Department for Children, Schools and Families (DfE).
Tansel, A. (2013). Private tutoring and inequitable opportunities in Turkey: Challenges and policy implications. In M. Bray, A. E. Mazawi, & R. G. Sultana (Eds.), Private tutoring across the Mediterranean: Power dynamics and implications for learning and equity (pp. 177–186). Rotterdam: Sense.
Tansel, A., & Bircan, F. (2006). Demand for education in Turkey: A tobit analysis of private tutoring expenditures. Economics of Education Review, 25(3), 303–313.
Tsuneyoshi, R. (2001). The Japanese model of schooling: Comparisons with the United States. New York: Routledge Falmer.
US Department of Education. (1987). Japanese education today. A report from the US study of education in Japan. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
Ventura, A., & Jang, S. (2010). Private tutoring through the internet: Globalization and offshoring. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 59–68.
Wang, L. C. (2013). The effect of high-stakes testing on suicidal ideaition of teenagers with reference-dependent preferences. Monash Economics Working Papers, Department of Economics, Monash University.
Watanabe, M. (2013). Juku: The stealth force of education and the deterioration of schools in Japan. North Charleston: Create Space Independent Publishing Platform.
West, A., Noden, P., & Edge, A. (1998). Parental involvement in education in and out of school. British Educational Research Journal, 24, 461–484.
Wiseman, A. W. (2013). Foreword. In J. Aurini, S. Davies, & J. Dierkes (Eds.), Out of the shadows: The global intensification of supplementary education (pp. 11–13). Bingley: Emerald Publishing.
Xue, H. P., & Ding, X. H. (2009). A study on additional instruction for students in cities and towns in China. Educational Research, 30(1), 39–46.
Yamamoto, Y., & Brinton, M. C. (2010). Cultural capital in East Asian educational systems: The case of Japan. Sociology of Education, 83(1), 67–83.
Yang, I., & Kim, B. C. (2010). A qualitative case study on the school life of middle school students who go to private educational institute. The Korea Educational Review, 16(3), 117–153.
Zhang, W. (2014). The demand for shadow education in China: Mainstream teachers and power relations. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 34(4), 436–454.
Zhang, W., & Bray, M. (2015). Shadow education in Chongqing, China: Factors underlying demand and policy implications. Korean Journal of Educational Policy, 12(1), 83–106.
Zhang, Y. (2011). The determinants of national college entrance exam performance in China-with an analysis of private tutoring (PhD dissertation). Retrieved from https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac:131438.
Zhang, Y. (2013). Does private tutoring improve students’ National College entrance exam performance? A case study from Jinan, China. Economics of Education Review, 32, 1–28.
Zhou, M. (2008). The ethnic system of supplementary education: Non-profit and for profit institutions in Los Angeles’ Chinese immigrant community. In M. Shinn & H. Yoshikawa (Eds.), Toward positive youth development: Transforming schools and community programs (pp. 229–251). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Zhou, M., & Kim, S. (2006). Community forces, social capital, and educational achievement: The case of education in the Chinese and Korean immigrant communities. Harvard Educational Review, 76(1), 1–29.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kim, Y.C., Jung, JH. (2019). Worldwide Shadow Education Epidemic: From East Asia to Western Hemisphere. In: Shadow Education as Worldwide Curriculum Studies. Curriculum Studies Worldwide. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03982-0_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03982-0_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-03981-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-03982-0
eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)