Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Impact of Primary Relationships and Early Experiences in Toddlerhood: 12 to 18 Months

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Building Early Social and Emotional Relationships with Infants and Toddlers

  • 1918 Accesses

Abstract

The importance of responsive early relationships and consistent and positive early learning opportunities is critical for the developmental period of toddlerhood. This chapter will discuss empirical research as it is applied to the field of early development and will further explicate both positive and adverse experiences that impact developmental trajectories. Understanding domains of early social-emotional development in the context of caregiving relationships and child care will be highlighted, as well as the influences of individuals and environments on children’s developmental outcomes. The impact of brain development, developmental hazards, and factors that can buffer early developmental pathways will be reviewed within a frame of prevention and early intervention, as well as the promotion of rich, high-quality experiences required for well-being of young children.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aldous, J., Mulligan, G., & Bjarnason, T. (1988). Fathering over time: What makes the difference? Journal of Marriage and Family, 60(4), 809–820.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Als, H., Duffy, H. F., McAnulty, G. B., Rivkin, M. J., Vajapeyam, S., Mulkern, R. V., et al. (2004). Early experience alters brain function and structure. Pediatrics, 113(4), 846–857.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ansari, A., & Gershoff, E. (2016). Parent involvement in head start and Children’s development: Indirect effects through parenting. Journal of Marriage and Family, 78, 562–579.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bagnato, S. J., Neisworth, J., Salvia, J., & Hunt, F. (1999). Temperament and atypical behavior scale (TABS) assessment tool: Early childhood indicators of developmental dysfunction. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2003). Less is more: Meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 195–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bariola, E., Gullone, E., & Hughes, E. K. (2011). Child and adolescent emotion regulation: The role of parental emotion regulation and expression. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(2), 198–212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bayley, N. (2005). Bayley scales of infant and Toddler development, third edition (Bayley-III). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. S., & Tomes, N. (1986). Human capital and the rise and fall of families. Journal of Labor Economics, 4(3, P.t 2), S1–S39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, S. M., & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1972). Infant crying and maternal responsiveness. Child Development, 43, 1171–1190.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J. (1990). Quantity of nonmaternal care and Boy’s problem behavior/adjustment at ages 3 and 5: Exploring the mediating role of parenting. Journal of Psychiatry Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 62(1), 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blandon, A. Y., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2010). Predicting emotional and social competence during early childhood from toddler risk and maternal behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 22(01), 119–132.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bock, J., Gruss, M., Becker, S., & Braun, K. (2005). Experience-induced changes of dendritic spine densities in the prefrontal and sensory cortex: Correlation with developmental time windows. Cerebral Cortex, 15, 802–808.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bocknek, E. L., Brophy-Herb, H. E., & Banerjee, M. (2009). Effects of parental supportiveness on toddlers’ emotion regulation over the first three years of life in a low-income African American sample. Infant Mental Health Journal, 30(5), 452–476.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. London, UK: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyce, W. T., & Ellis, B. J. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary–developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology, 17(02), 271–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bricker, D., Capt, B., & Pretti-Frontczak, K. (2002). Test [for] birth to three years and three to six years. Assessment, evaluation, and programming system for infants and children (AEPS). Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brigance, A. (2010). BRIGANCE® inventory of early development II. PsycTESTS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Carter, A. S. (2006). BITSEA: Brief infant toddler social and emotional assessment Examiner’s manual. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22(6), 723–742.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1993). Heredity, environment and the question “How?”: A new theoretical perspective for the 1990s. In R. Plomin & G. E. McClearn (Eds.), Nature, nurture, and psychology (pp. 313–324). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Theoretical models of human development. Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 1, 6th ed., pp. 793–828). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bzoch, K. R., League, R., & Brown, V. L. (2003). Receptive-expressive emergent language test – Third edition (REEL-3). Austin: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D. (1994). Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3), 53–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D., & Dedmon, S. E. (2000). Physiological and behavioral regulation in two-year-old children with aggressive/destructive behavior problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(2), 103–118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D., & Hill, A. (2007). Caregiver influences on emerging emotion regulation: Biological and environmental transactions in early development. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 229–248). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D., & Johnson, M. C. (1998). Toddler regulation of distress to frustrating events: Temperamental and maternal correlates. Infant Behavior and Development, 21(3), 379–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D., & Leerkes, E. M. (2004). Early attachment processes and the development of emotional self-regulation. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D., & Marcovitch, S. (2009). Emotion regulation and executive functioning in early development: Mechanisms of control supporting adaptive functioning. In S. D. Calkins & M. A. Bell (Eds.), Child development at the intersection of emotion and cognition. Washington, DC: APA Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D., Smith, C. L., Gill, K. L., & Johnson, M. C. (1998). Maternal interactive style across contexts: Relations to emotional, behavioral and physiological regulation during toddlerhood. Social Development, 7(3), 350–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, A., Garrity-Rokous, F. E., Chazen-Cohen, R., Little, C., & Briggs-Gowen, M. (2001). Maternal depression and comorbidity: Predicting early parenting, attachment security and toddler social-emotional problems and competencies. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(1), 18–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, A. S., Briggs-Gowan, M., Jones, S. M., Little, T., Ellingson, K. D., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., … Horwitz, S. M. (Eds.). (2004). Infant-toddler social emotional assessment. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 158, 766–772.

    Google Scholar 

  • Center for the Developing Child at Harvard University. (2017). Three principles to improve outcomes for children and families. http://wwww.developingchild.harvard.edu

  • Chang, L., Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., & McBride-Chang, C. (2003). Harsh parenting in relation to child emotion regulation and aggression. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(4), 598.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Choe, D. E., Olson, S. L., & Sameroff, A. J. (2013). Effects of early maternal distress and parenting on the development of children’s self-regulation and externalizing behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 25(2), 437–453.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., Toth, S., & Maughan, A. (2000). An ecological-transactional model of child maltreatment. In A. J. Sameroff, M. Lewis, & S. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp. 689–722). Boston, MA: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2015). Multilevel developmental perspectives on child maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 27(4 pt. 2), 1385–1386.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Committee on Children with Disabilities, American Academy of Pediatrics. (2001). The Pediatrician’s role in the diagnosis and Management of Autistic Spectrum Disorder in children. Pediatrics, 107(5), 1221–1226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, K. J., Rueter, M. A., & Conger, R. D. (2000). The role of economic pressure in the lives of parents and their adolescents: The family stress model. In L. J. Crockett & R. K. Silbereisen (Eds.), Negotiating adolescence in times of social change (pp. 201–223). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danese, A., Moffitt, T. E., Harrington, H., Milne, B. J., Polanczyk, G., Pariante, C. M., … Caspi, A. (2009). Adverse childhood experiences and adult risk factors for age-related disease: Depression, inflammation, and clustering of metabolic risk markers. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 163(12), 1135–1143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Ashman, S., & Carver, L. (2000). The role of early experience in shaping behavioral and brain development and its implications for social policy. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 695–712.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Carver, L., Meltzoff, A., Panagiotides, H., McPartland, J., & Webb, S. (2002). Neural correlates of face and object recognition in children with autism Spectrum disorder, developmental delay, and typical development. Child Development, 73(3), 700–717.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dennis, T. (2006). Emotional self-regulation in preschoolers: The interplay of child approach reactivity, parenting, and control capacities. Developmental Psychology, 42(1), 84–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downer, J. T., Campos, R., McWayne, C. M., & Gartner, T. (2008). Father involvement and children’s early learning: A critical review of published empirical work from the past 15 years. Marriage & Family Review, 43, 67–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H., Jr., Van Nguyen, T., & Caspi, A. (1985). Linking family hardship to children’s lives. Child Development, 56, 361–375.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of child poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fabes, R. A., Leonard, S. A., Kupanoff, K., & Martin, C. L. (2001). Parental coping with children’s negative emotions: Relations with children’s emotional and social responding. Child Development, 72(3), 907–920.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fantuzzo, J., McWayne, C. H., & Perry, M. A. (2004). Multiple dimensions of family involvement and their relations to behavioral and learning competencies for urban, low-income children. School Psychology Review, 33(4), 467–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fearon, R. P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Lapsley, A. M., & Roisman, G. I. (2010). The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children’s externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81(2), 435–456.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenson, L., Marchman, V. A., Thal, D. J., Dale, P. S., Reznick, J. S., & Bates, E. (2007). MacArthur-Bates communicative development inventories: User’s guide and technical manual (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fewell, R. R., Langley, M. B., & Fewell, R. R. L. M. B. (1984). Developmental activities screening inventory–second edition. Austin, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finzi, R., Cohen, O., Sapir, Y., & Weizman, A. (2000). Attachment styles in maltreated children: A comparative study. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 31(2), 113–128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, K. & West, J. Children Born in 2001. (2004). First results from the base year of the early childhood longitudinal study, birth cohort (ECLSB). U.S. Department of education Institute of Educational Sciences, 1–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forget-Dubois, N., Boivin, M., Dionne, G., Pierce, T., Tremblay, R. E., & Perusse, D. (2007). A longitudinal twin study of the genetic and environmental etiology of maternal hostile-reactive behavior during infancy and toddlerhood. Infant Behavior and Development, 30(3), 453–465.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, S., Levitt, P., & Nelson, C. (2010). How the timing and quality of early experiences influence the development of brain architecture. Child Development, 81(1), 28–40.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, F., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Burton, J., & Supplee, L. (2007). Randomized prevention trial for early conduct problems: Effects on proactive parenting and links to toddler disruptive behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(3), 398–406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garner, A., Shonkoff, J., Siegel, B., Dobbins, M., Earls, M., Garner, A., et al. (2012). Early childhood adversity, toxic stress, and the role of the pediatrician: Translating development science into lifelong health. Pediatrics, 129(1), 224–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glascoe, F. P. (2002). The Brigance infant-toddler screen (BITS): Standardization and validation. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, 145–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmith, H. H., & Davidson, R. J. (2004). Disambiguating the components of emotion regulation. Child Development, 75(2), 361–365.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. H. (2007). Depression in mothers. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3(1), 107–135.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenough, W. T., & Black, J. E. (1992). Induction of brain structure by experience: Substrates for cognitive development. In M. R. Gunnar & C. A. Nelson (Eds.), Developmental behavioral neuroscience: The minnesota symposia on child psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 155–200). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2, 271–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (Eds.). (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossmann, K. E., Grossmann, K., & Zimmermann, P. (1999). A wider view of attachment and exploration: Stability and change during the years of immaturity. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 760–786). New York, NY: Guilford press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossmann, K. E., Grossmann, K., Winter, M., & Zimmermann, P. (2002). Attachment relationships and appraisal of partnership: From early experience of sensitive support to later relationship representation. In L. Pulkkinen & A. Caspi (Eds.), Personality in the life course: Paths to successful development (pp. 73–105). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (2002). Social regulation of the cortisol levels in early human development. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27(1), 199–220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrist, A. W., Pettit, G. S., Dodge, K. A., & Bates, J. E. (1994). Dyadic synchrony in mother-child interaction: Relation with children’s subsequent kindergarten adjustment. Family Relations, 43, 417–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffert, S. L., Stueve, J. L., Pleck, J., Bianchi, S., & Sayer, L. (2002). The demography of fathers: What fathers do. In C. S. Tamis-LeMonda & N. Cabrera (Eds.), Handbook of father involvement: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 63–92). New Jersey NJ: LEA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, C., Crnic, K. A., & Baker, J. K. (2006). Maternal depression and parenting: Implications for children’s emergent emotion regulation and behavioral functioning. Parenting: Science and Practice, 6(4), 271–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., Phillips, D. A., & Whitebook, M. (1992). Thresholds of quality: Implications for the social development of children in center-based child care. Child Development, 63, 449–460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hresko, W. P., Miguel, S. A., Sherbenou, R. J., Burton, S. D., Hresko, W. P., Miguel, S. A., & Sherbenou, R. J. B. S. D. (1994). Developmental observation checklist system. Austin, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones Harden, B., & Whittaker, J. V. (2011). The early home environment and developmental outcomes for young children in the child welfare system. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(8), 1392–1403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S. B., Riley, A. W., Gragner, D. A., and Riis, J. (2013). The science of early life toxic stress for pediatric practice and advocacy.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Joesch, J. M., & Hiedemann, B. G. (2002). The demand for nonrelative child care among families with infants and toddlers: A double-hurdle approach. Journal of Population Economics, 15, 495–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaminski, J. W., Valle, L. A., Filene, J. H., & Boyle, C. L. (2008). A meta-analytic review of components associated with parent training program effectiveness. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(4), 567–589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klasen, F., Otto, C., Kriston, L., Patalay, P., Schlack, R., & Ravens-Sieberer, U. (2015). Risk and protective factors for the development of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: Results of the longitudinal BELLA study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(6), 695–703.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(6), 706–716.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim-Spoon, J., Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2013). A longitudinal study of emotion regulation, emotion lability-negativity, and internalizing symptomatology in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Child Development, 84(2), 512–527.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kochanska, G. (2001). Emotional development in children with different attachment histories: The First three years. Child Development, 72(2), 474–490.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kreader, J. L., Ferguson, D., & Lawrence, S. (2005). Infant and toddler child care arrangements: Research-to-policy connections. In Child Care & Early Education Research Connections (pp. 1–5). New York, NY: National Center for Children in Poverty., No. 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E. (1998). Nonparental child care: Context, quality, correlates, and consequences. In W. Damon, E. Sigel, & K. A. Renninger (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology, volume 4: Child psychology in practice (pp. 73–133). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2004). The role of the father: An introduction. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (4th ed., pp. 1–31). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laughlin, L. (2013). Who’s Minding the Kids? Child Care Arrangements: Spring 2011. House- hold Economic Studies, U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration U.S. CENSUS BUREAU census.gov, 70–135. Retrieved from: https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p70-135.pdf

  • Love, J., Harrison, L., Sagi-Schwartz, A., Van IJzendoorn, M., Ross, C., Ungerer, J., . . . Chazan-Cohen, R. (2003). Child care quality matters: How conclusions may vary with context. Child Development, 74(4), 1021–1033.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Love, J. M., Schochet, P. Z., & Meckstroth, A. L. (1996). Are they in any real danger? What research does — And doesn’t — Tell us about child care quality and children’s well-being. Princeton: Mathematica Policy Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, M., Graczyk, P. A., Terry, P. A., Villarruel, F. A., & McKinney, M. H. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 561–592.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luke, N., & Banerjee, R. (2013). Differentiated associations between childhood maltreatment experiences and social understanding: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Developmental Review, 33(1), 1–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg, S., McLanahan, S., & Rose, E. (2007). Child gender and father involvement in fragile families. Demography, 44(1), 79–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 739–795). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsiglio, W., Amato, P., Day, R., & Lamb, M. (2000). Scholarship on fatherhood in the 1990s and beyond. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62, 1173–1191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathis, E. T., & Bierman, K. L. (2015). Dimensions of parenting associated with child prekindergarten emotion regulation and attention control in low-income families. Social Development, 24(3), 601–620.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matte-Gagne, C., Bernier, A., & Lalonde, G. (2015). Stability in maternal autonomy support and child executive functioning. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 2610–2619.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children’s emotion regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73(5), 1525–1542.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McWayne, C., Downer, J., Campos, R., & Harris, R. (2013). Father involvement during early childhood and its association with Children’s early learning: A meta-analysis. Early Education and Development, 24(6), 898–922.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minuchin, P. (1988). Relationships within the family: A systems perspective on development. In R. A. Hinde & J. Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Relationships within families: Mutual influences (pp. 7–26). Oxford: Clarendon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Sessa, F. M., Avenevoli, S., & Essex, M. J. (2002). Temperamental vulnerability and negative parenting as interacting predictors of child adjustment. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(2), 461–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Morris, M. D., Steinberg, L., Aucoin, K. J., & Keyes, A. W. (2011). The influence of mother–child emotion regulation strategies on children’s expression of anger and sadness. Developmental Psychology, 47(1), 213–225.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mortensen, J. A., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2014). A meta-analytic review of relationship-based interventions for low-income families with infants and toddlers: Facilitating supportive parent–child interactions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35(4), 336–353.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moss, E., Dubois-Comtois, K., Cyr, C., Tarabulsy, G. M., St-Laurent, D., & Bernier, A. (2011). Efficacy of a home-visiting intervention aimed at improving maternal sensitivity, child attachment, and behavioral outcomes for maltreated children: A randomized control trial. Development and Psychopathology, 23(01), 195–210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mullen, E., DiLavore, P. C., Lord, C., & Rutter, M. (1995). Mullen scales of early learning. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25(4), 355–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mundy, P., Delgado, C., Block, J., Venezia M., Hogan, A., & Seibert, J. (2003). Early social communication scales (ESCS).

    Google Scholar 

  • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Early Child Care Research Network. (2000). The relation of child care to cognitive and language development. Child Development, 71(4), 960–980.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2005). Excessive stress disrupts the architecture of the developing brain: Working paper #3.National Scientific Council on the developing child. In Center on the developing child at Harvard University Available at www.developingchild.harvard.edu

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, C. (2000). Neural plasticity and human development: The role of early experience in sculpting memory systems. Developmental Science, 3(2), 115–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, B.G. (2004). Myths about men who work with young children, child care information exchange, November/December, 16–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newborg, J. (2005). Battelle Developmental Inventory (2nd ed.. Examiner’s manual). Itasca, IL: Riverside.

    Google Scholar 

  • NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2002). Early child care and children’s development prior to school entry: Results from the NICHD Study of early child care. American Educational Research Journal, 39, 133–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obradović, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. E., & Boyce, W. T. (2010). Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 81(1), 270–289.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paquette, D. (2004). Theorizing the father-child relationship: Mechanisms and developmental outcomes. Human Development, 47(4), 193–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paschall, K. W., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2016). A review of 25 years of research in bidirectionality in parent–child relationships: An examination of methodological approaches. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 40(5), 442–451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, D., Howes, C., & Whitebook, M. (1992). The social policy context of child care: Effects on quality. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 25–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, D. A., Voran, M., Kisker, E., Howes, C., & Whitebook, M. (1994). Child care for children in poverty: Opportunity or inequity? Child Development, 65, 472–492.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2010). Differential susceptibility to parenting and quality child care. Developmental Psychology, 46(2), 379–390.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Hornung, K., & Reed, A. (2000). Recognizing emotion in faces: Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychology, 36(5), 679–688.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, G., Mackrain, M., & LeBuffe, P. (2007). Devereux early childhood assessment for infants and toddlers technical manual. Lewisville: Kaplan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, D., Son, S.-H., File, N., & San Jan, R. (2010). Parent-school relationships and children’s academic and social outcomes in public school prekindergarten. Journal of School Psychology, 48, 269–292.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Provence, S., Erikson, J., Vater, S., Palermi, S., Pruitt, K., & Rosinia, J. (2016). Infant-toddler developmental assessment, second edition (IDA-2). Austin: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radley, J., Sisti, H., Hao, J., Rocher, A., McCall, T., Hof, P., et al. (2004). Chronic behavioral stress induces apical dendritic reorganization in pyramidal neurons of the medial prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience, 125(1), 1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raver, C. C. (2004). Placing emotional self-regulation in sociocultural and socioeconomic contexts. Child Development, 75(2), 346–353.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, D., Fein, D., & Barton, M. (2009). Modified checklist for autism in toddlers, revised with follow-up (M-CHAT-R/F). Self-published.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roggman, L. A., Cook, G. A., Innocenti, M. S., Norman, V. J., & Christiansen, K. (2013). Parenting interactions with children: Checklist of observations linked to outcomes (PICCOLO) user guide. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogoff, B., & Lave, J. (Eds.). (1984). Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenblum, K., Dayton, C., & Muzik, M. (2009). Infant social and emotional development: Emerging competence in a relational context. In C. Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health (3rd ed., pp. 80–103). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, M. R., & Mazzucchelli, T. G. (2013). The promotion of self-regulation through parenting interventions. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 16, 1–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J. (Ed.). (2009). The transactional model of development: How children and contexts shape each other. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scaramella, L. V., & Leve, L. D. (2004). Clarifying parent–child reciprocities during early childhood: The early childhood coercion model. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 7(2), 89–107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scaramella, L. V., Sohr-Preston, S. L., Callahan, K. L., & Mirabile, S. P. (2008). A test of the family stress model on toddler-aged children’s adjustment among Hurricane Katrina impacted and nonimpacted low-income families. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37(3), 530–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheridan, M. A., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2014). Dimensions of early experience and neural development: Deprivation and threat. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(11), 580–585.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shonkoff, J. P., & Levitt, P. (2010). Neuroscience and the future of early childhood policy: Moving from why to what and how. Neuron, 67(5), 689–691.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shonkoff, J. P., Garner, A. S., Siegel, B. S., Dobbins, M. I., Earls, M. F., McGuinn, L., et al., Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232–e246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, B. (2004). The pervasive developmental disorders screening test–II (PDDST–II). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Saulnier, C. A. (2016). Vineland adaptive behavior scales, third edition (Vineland-3). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Squires, J., & Bricker, D. (2009). Ages & Stages Questionnaires (ASQ3): A parent-completed child-monitoring system (3rd ed.). Stanford: Paul Brookes Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Squires, J., Bricker, D., & Twombly, E. (2002). The ASQ: SE user’s guide: For the ages & stages questionnaires: Social-emotional. Baltimore: Paul H Brookes Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, A. (1996). Attachment: The dyadic regulation of emotion. In A. Sroufe (Ed.), Emotional development (pp. 172–191). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A. (2005). Attachment and development: A prospective, longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. Attachment & Human Development, 7(4), 349–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stams, G., Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2002). Maternal sensitivity, infant attachment, and temperament in early childhood predict adjustment in middle childhood: The case of adopted children and their biologically unrelated parents. Developmental Psychology, 38(5), 806–821.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tau, G., & Peterson, B. (2010). Normal development of brain circuits. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 147–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tottenham, N., Hare, T., Quinn, T., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Gilhooly, T., et al. (2010). Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation. Developmental Science, 13(1), 46–61.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • United States Department of Education. (2002). National Center for Education Statistics. Early Childhood Longitudinal Study [United States]: Birth Cohort.

    Google Scholar 

  • Urban Institute and Child Trends. National Survey of America’s Families (NSAF). (2002). Ann Arbor. MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandell, D., Burchinal, M., Vandergrift, N., Belsky, J., Steinberg, L., & NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2010). Do effects of early child care extend to age 15 years? Results from the NICHD study of early child care and youth development. Child Development, 81(3), 737–756.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Voress, J. K., Maddox, T., Voress, J. K., & Maddox, T. (2013). Social-emotional development domain. [Subscale from: Developmental Assessment of Young Children–Second Edition. NY: East Aurora.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waller, M., & Swisher, R. (2006). Fathers’ risk factors in fragile families: Implications for “healthy” relationships and father involvement. Social Problems, 53(3), 392–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waters, E., & Deane, K. E. (1985). Defining and assessing individual differences in attachment relationships: Q-methodology and the organization of behavior in infancy and early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 41–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wetherby, A., & Prizant, B. (2002). Communication and symbolic behavior scales developmental profile-first normed edition. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yates, T. M., Obradović, J., & Egeland, B. (2010). Transactional relations across contextual strain, parenting quality, and early childhood regulation and adaptation in a high-risk sample. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 539–555.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yeung, W. J., Sandberg, J. F., Davis-Kean, P. E., & Hofferth, S. L. (2001). Children’s time with fathers in intact families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 136–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeung, W. J., Linver, M. R., & Brooks–Gunn, J. (2002). How money matters for young children’s development: Parental investment and family processes. Child Development, 73(6), 1861–1879.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshikawa, H., Aber, J. L., & Beardslee, W. R. (2012). The effects of poverty on the mental, emotional, and behavioral health of children and youth: Implications for prevention. American Psychologist, 67(4), 272–284.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, I. L., Steiner, V. G., & Pond, R. E. (2002). Preschool language scale, fourth edition. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA

    Ann M. Mastergeorge

  2. Child Trends, Bethesda, MD, USA

    Katherine W. Paschall

Authors
  1. Ann M. Mastergeorge
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Katherine W. Paschall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Ann M. Mastergeorge or Katherine W. Paschall .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Human Development and Family Science, Oklahoma State University, Tulsa, OK, USA

    Amanda Sheffield Morris

  2. Department of Human Development and Family Science, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA

    Amy C. Williamson

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Mastergeorge, A.M., Paschall, K.W. (2018). The Impact of Primary Relationships and Early Experiences in Toddlerhood: 12 to 18 Months. In: Morris, A., Williamson, A. (eds) Building Early Social and Emotional Relationships with Infants and Toddlers. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03110-7_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation