Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Neuroprotective Agents

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Handbook of Neuroprotection

Abstract

A pharmacological classification of various neuroprotective agents is shown in Table 2.1. Approximately 80 categories are listed and include examples of over 400 neuroprotective agents. These approaches have been tested in animal experiments and clinical trials but some of the trials have not been successful. A few of the agents that are approved for non-neurological disorders have been used empirically as neuroprotectives in clinical practice. Some of these products will be described briefly in the following text.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adlard PA, Perreau VM, Pop V, Cotman CW. Voluntary exercise decreases amyloid load in a transgenic model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurosci 2005;25:4217–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad AS, Zhuang H, Dore S. Hemeoxygenase-1 protects brain from acute excitotoxicity. Neuroscience 2006;141:1703–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Albani D, Polito L, Batelli S, De Mauro S, et al. The SIRT1 activator resveratrol protects SK-N-BE cells from oxidative stress and against toxicity caused by alpha-synuclein or amyloid-beta (1–42) peptide. J Neurochem 2009;110:1445–56.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baker AM, Batchelor DC, Thomas GB, et al. Central penetration and stability of N-terminal tripeptide of insulin-like growth factor-I, glycine-proline-glutamate in adult rat. Neuropeptides 2005;39:81–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bazan NG. Omega-3 fatty acids, pro-inflammatory signaling and neuroprotection. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2007;10:136–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bednarczyk P. Potassium channels in brain mitochondria. Acta Biochim Pol 2009;56:385–92.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Belayev L, Khoutorova L, Zhao W, et al. Neuroprotective effect of darbepoetin alfa, a novel recombinant erythropoietic protein, in focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Stroke 2005;36:1065–70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett BM, Reynolds JN, Prusky GT, et al. Cognitive deficits in rats after forebrain cholinergic depletion are reversed by a novel NO mimetic nitrate ester. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007;32:505–13.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Besson VC. Drug targets for traumatic brain injury from poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase pathway modulation. Br J Pharmacol 2009;157:695–704.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bilkei-Gorzo A, Racz I, Valverde O, et al. Early age-related cognitive impairment in mice lacking cannabinoid CB1 receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005;102:15670–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blackstone E, Morrison M, Roth MB. H2S induces a suspended animation-like state in mice. Science 2005;308:518.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bordet R, Ouk T, Petrault O, et al. PPAR: a new pharmacological target for neuroprotection in stroke and neurodegenerative diseases. Biochem Soc Trans 2006;34(Pt 6):1341–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bordet T, Buisson B, Michaud M, et al. Identification and characterization of cholest-4-en-3-one, oxime (TRO19622), a novel drug candidate for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007;322:709–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borlongan CV, Hayashi T, Oeltgen PR, et al. Hibernation-like state induced by an opioid peptide protects against experimental stroke. BMC Biol 2009;7:31.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bourre JM. Effects of nutrients (in food) on the structure and function of the nervous system: update on dietary requirements for brain. Part 1: micronutrients. J Nutr Health Aging 2006;10:377–85.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brines M, Patel NS, Villa P, et al. Nonerythropoietic, tissue-protective peptides derived from the tertiary structure of erythropoietin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008;105:10925–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chaïb-Oukadour I, Gil C, Rodríguez-Alvarez J, Ortega A, Aguilera J. Tetanus toxin H(C) fragment reduces neuronal MPP+ toxicity. Mol Cell Neurosci 2009;41:297–303.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen LW, Yung KK, Chan YS, et al. The proNGF-p75NTR-sortilin signalling complex as new target for the therapeutic treatment of Parkinson’s disease. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets 2008a;7:512–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen ZL, Yu H, Yu WM, et al. Proteolytic fragments of laminin promote excitotoxic neurodegeneration by up-regulation of the KA1 subunit of the kainate receptor. J Cell Biol 2008b;183:1299–313.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chiba T, Nishimoto I, Aiso S, Matsuoka M. Neuroprotection against neurodegenerative diseases: development of a novel hybrid neuroprotective peptide Colivelin. Mol Neurobiol 2007;35:55–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chun HS, Kim JM, Choi EH, Chang N. Neuroprotective effects of several korean medicinal plants traditionally used for stroke remedy. J Med Food 2008;11:246–51.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Danscher G, Larsen A. Effects of dissolucytotic gold ions on recovering brain lesions. Histochem Cell Biol 2010;133:367–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davila D, Piriz J, Trejo JL, et al. Insulin and insulin-like growth factor I signalling in neurons. Front Biosci 2007;12:3194–202.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Degn M, Lambertsen KL, Petersen G, et al. Changes in brain levels of N-acylethanolamines and 2-arachidonoylglycerol in focal cerebral ischemia in mice. J Neurochem 2007;103:1907–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dolga AM, Nijholt IM, Ostroveanu A, et al. Lovastatin induces neuroprotection through tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 signaling pathways. J Alzheimers Dis 2008;13:111–22.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dulla CG, Dobelis P, Pearson T, et al. Adenosine and ATP link PCO2 to cortical excitability via pH. Neuron 2005;48:1011–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Echeverry R, Wu J, Haile WB, et al. Tissue-type plasminogen activator is a neuroprotectant in the mouse hippocampus. J Clin Invest 2010;120:2194.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elewa HF, Hilali H, Hess DC, et al. Minocycline for short-term neuroprotection. Pharmacotherapy 2006;26:515–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Endres M, Gertz K, Lindauer U, et al. Mechanisms of stroke protection by physical activity. Ann Neurol 2003;54:582–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Escartin C, Brouillet E, Gubellini P, et al. Ciliary neurotrophic factor activates astrocytes, redistributes their glutamate transporters GLAST and GLT-1 to raft microdomains, and improves glutamate handling in vivo. J Neurosci 2006;26:5978–89.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eschenfelder CC, Krug R, Yusofi AF, et al. Neuroprotection by oxygen in acute transient focal cerebral ischemia is dose dependent and shows superiority of hyperbaric oxygenation. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008;25:193–201.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fregni F, Otachi PT, Do Valle A, et al. A randomized clinical trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with refractory epilepsy. Ann Neurol 2006;60:447–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fumagalli E, Funicello M, Rauen T, et al. Riluzole enhances the activity of glutamate transporters GLAST, GLT1 and EAAC1. Eur J Pharmacol 2008;578:171–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Furuichi Y, Noto T, Li JY, et al. Multiple modes of action of tacrolimus (FK506) for neuroprotective action on ischemic damage after transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Brain Res 2004;1014:120–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gasior M, Rogawski MA, Hartman AL. Neuroprotective and disease-modifying effects of the ketogenic diet. Behav Pharmacol 2006;17:431–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gluckman PD, Wyatt JS, Azzopardi D, et al. Selective head cooling with mild systemic hypothermia to improve neurodevelopmental outcome following neonatal encephalopathy. Lancet 2005;365:663–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gold BG, Voda J, Yu X, et al. FK506 and a nonimmunosuppressant derivative reduce axonal and myelin damage in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: neuroimmunophilin ligand-mediated neuroprotection in a model of multiple sclerosis. J Neurosci Res 2004;77:367–77.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gorba T, Bradoo P, Antonic A, et al. Neural regeneration protein is a novel chemoattractive and neuronal survival-promoting factor. Exp Cell Res 2006;312:3060–74.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goulton CS, Patten AR, Kerr JR, Kerr DS. Pharmacological preconditioning with GYKI 52466: a prophylactic approach to neuroprotection. Front Neurosci 2010;4:54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gozes I. Activity-dependent neuroprotective protein: from gene to drug candidate. Pharmacol Ther 2007;114:146–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gulaj E, Pawlak K, Bien B, Pawlak D. Kynurenine and its metabolites in Alzheimer’s disease patients. Adv Med Sci 2010;1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunn AJ, Thoresen M. Hypothermic neuroprotection. NeuroRx 2006;3:154–69.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo G, Bhat NR. p38α MAP kinase mediates hypoxia-induced motor neuron cell death: a potential target of minocycline’s neuroprotective action. Neurochem Res 2007;32:2160–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo H, Liu D, Gelbard H, et al. Activated protein C prevents neuronal apoptosis via protease activated receptors 1 and 3. Neuron 2004;41:563–72.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo S, Kim WJ, Lok J, et al. Neuroprotection via matrix-trophic coupling between cerebral endothelial cells and neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008;105:7582–87.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hartman AL, Gasior M, Vining EP, Rogawski MA. The neuropharmacology of the ketogenic diet. Pediatr Neurol 2007;36:281–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hashimoto K. Sigma-1 receptors and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: clinical implications of their relationship. Cent Nerv Syst Agents Med Chem 2009;9:197–204.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hatton J, Rosbolt B, Empey P, et al. Dosing and safety of cyclosporine in patients with severe brain injury. J Neurosurg 2008;109:699–707.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hau S, Reich DM, Scholz M, et al. Evidence for neuroprotective properties of human umbilical cord blood cells after neuronal hypoxia in vitro. BMC Neurosci 2008;9:30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins RA, Simpson IA, Mokashi A, Vina JR. Pyroglutamate stimulates Na+ -dependent glutamate transport across the blood-brain barrier. FEBS Lett 2006;580:4382–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hu D, Serrano F, Oury TD, Klann E. Aging-dependent alterations in synaptic plasticity and memory in mice that overexpress extracellular superoxide dismutase. J Neurosci 2006;26:3933–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Inder TE, Hunt RW, Morley CJ, et al. Randomized trial of systemic hypothermia electively protects the cortex on MRI in term hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. J Pediatr 2004;145:835–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Oxygen in Physiology and Medicine. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Evaluation of mitoxantrone for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Exp Opin Invest Drugs 2000;9:1139–49.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. What can transcranial magnetic stimulation offer general neurology practice? Pract Neurol 2005;4:34–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Textbook of Hyperbaric Medicine, 5th ed, Hogrefe, Göttingen, 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Cell Therapy: technologies, companies and markets. Jain PharmaBiotech Publications, Basel, 2010a.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Gene Therapy: technologies, companies and markets. Jain PharmaBiotech Publications, Basel, 2010b.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Coenzyme Q10. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. Medlink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010c.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Gene therapy for cerebrovascular disease. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology, Medlink Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010d.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Glatiramer acetate. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. Medlink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010e.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Ion channels and neurologic disorders. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. Medlink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010f.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Levetiracetam. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. Medlink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010g.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Modafinil. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. Medlink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010h.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Neurotrophic Factors. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. Medlink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010i.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Riluzole. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. Medlink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010j.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. MedLink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010k.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Tissue plasminogen activator. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. Medlink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010l.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Vaccines for neurologic disorders. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. Medlink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010m.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain KK. Vitamin E in neurologic disorders. In Gilman S (ed) MedLink Neurology. Medlink Publishing Corporation, San Diego, California, 2010n.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jang SW, Okada M, Sayeed I, et al. Gambogic amide, a selective agonist for TrkA receptor that possesses robust neurotrophic activity, prevents neuronal cell death. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007;104:16329–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jang H, Boltz D, Sturm-Ramirez K, et al. Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus can enter the central nervous system and induce neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009;106:14063–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jin Y, Lim CM, Kim SW, et al. Fluoxetine attenuates kainic acid-induced neuronal cell death in the mouse hippocampus. Brain Res 2009;1281:108–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jolivalt CG, Vu Y, Mizisin LM, et al. Impaired prosaposin secretion during nerve regeneration in diabetic rats and protection of nerve regeneration by a prosaposin-derived peptide. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2008;67:702–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kamat CD, Gadal S, Mhatre M, et al. Antioxidants in central nervous system diseases: preclinical promise and translational challenges. J Alzheimers Dis 2008;15:473–93.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy DO, Wightman EL, Reay JL, et al. Effects of resveratrol on cerebral blood flow variables and cognitive performance in humans: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover investigation. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;91:1590–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khaspekov LG, Brenz Verca MS, Frumkina LE, et al. Involvement of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in cannabinoid receptor-dependent protection against excitotoxicity. Eur J Neurosci 2004;19:1691–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraft AD, Johnson DA, Johnson JA. Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2-dependent antioxidant response element activation by tert-butylhydroquinone and sulforaphane occurring preferentially in astrocytes conditions neurons against oxidative insult. J Neurosci 2004;24:1101–12.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lapchak PA. Carbamylated erythropoietin to treat neuronal injury: new development strategies. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2008;17:1175–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lapchak PA. Erythropoietin molecules to treat acute ischemic stroke: a translational dilemma. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2010;19:1179–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee H, Kim YO, Kim H, et al. Flavonoid wogonin from medicinal herb is neuroprotective by inhibiting inflammatory activation of microglia. FASEB J 2003;17:1943–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee ES, Yin Z, Milatovic D, et al. Estrogen and tamoxifen protect against Mn-induced toxicity in rat cortical primary cultures of neurons and astrocytes. Toxicol Sci 2009;110:156–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lehtinen MK, Yuan Z, Boag PR, et al. A conserved MST-FOXO signaling pathway mediates oxidative-stress responses and extends life span. Cell 2006;125:987–1001.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li L, Xu B, Zhu Y, et al. DHEA prevents Abeta(25–35)-impaired survival of newborn neurons in the dentate gyrus through a modulation of PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling. Neuropharmacology 2010;59:323–33.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li IH, Huang WS, Shiue CY, et al. Study on the neuroprotective effect of fluoxetine against MDMA-induced neurotoxicity on the serotonin transporter in rat brain using micro-PET. Neuroimage 2010;49:1259–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lian XY, Zhang Z, Stringer JL. Protective effects of ginseng components in a rodent model of neurodegeneration. Ann Neurol 2005 May;57:642–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liang X, Wu L, Hand T, Andreasson K. Prostaglandin D2 mediates neuronal protection via the DP1 receptor. J Neurochem 2005;92:477–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lim GP, Chu T, Yang F, et al. The curry spice curcumin reduces oxidative damage and amyloid pathology in an Alzheimer transgenic mouse. J Neurosci 2001;21:8370–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsley CW, Niswender CM, Engers DW, Hopkins CR. Recent progress in the development of mGluR4 positive allosteric modulators for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Curr Top Med Chem 2009;9:949–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lipton SA. Paradigm shift in neuroprotection by NMDA receptor blockade: memantine and beyond. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2006;5:160–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lukiw WJ, Cui JG, Marcheselli VL, et al. A role for docosahexaenoic acid-derived neuroprotectin D1 in neural cell survival and Alzheimer disease. J Clin Invest 2005;115:2774–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mandel S, Amit T, Reznichenko L, et al. Green tea catechins as brain-permeable, natural iron chelators-antioxidants for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Mol Nutr Food Res 2006;50:229–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marinova Z, Ren M, Wendland JR, et al. Valproic acid induces functional heat-shock protein 70 via Class I histone deacetylase inhibition in cortical neurons: a potential role of Sp1 acetylation. J Neurochem 2009;111:976–87.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mariotti V, Melissari E, Amar S, et al. Effect of prolonged phenytoin administration on rat brain gene expression assessed by DNA microarrays. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2010;235:300–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall L, Helgadottir H, Molle M, Born J. Boosting slow oscillations during sleep potentiates memory. Nature 2006;444:610–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mattiasson G, Shamloo M, Gido G, et al. Uncoupling protein-2 prevents neuronal death and diminishes brain dysfunction after stroke and brain trauma. Nat Med 2003;9:1062–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meller R, Stevens SL, Minami M, et al. Neuroprotection by osteopontin in stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2005;25:217–25.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mirzayan MJ, Klinge PM, Ude S, et al. Modified calcium accumulation after controlled cortical impact under cyclosporin A treatment: a 45Ca autoradiographic study. Neurol Res 2008;30:476–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morland C, Boldingh KA, Iversen EG, Hassel B. Valproate is neuroprotective against malonate toxicity in rat striatum: an association with augmentation of high-affinity glutamate uptake. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2004;24:1226–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nathan C, Calingasan N, Nezezon J, et al. Protection from Alzheimer’s-like disease in the mouse by genetic ablation of inducible nitric oxide synthase. J Exp Med 2005;202:1163–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nystul TG, Roth MB. Carbon monoxide-induced suspended animation protects against hypoxic damage in Caenorhabditis elegans. PNAS 2004;101:9133–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okonkwo DO, Melon DE, Pellicane AJ, et al. Dose-response of cyclosporin A in attenuating traumatic axonal injury in rat. Neuroreport 2003;14:463–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palop JJ, Chin J, Mucke L. A network dysfunction perspective on neurodegenerative diseases. Nature 2006;443:768–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pan Y, Zhang H, Vanderipe DR, et al. Heliox and oxygen reduce infarct volume in a rat model of focal ischemia. Exp Neurol 2007;205:587–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panikashvili D, Shein NA, Mechoulam R, et al. The endocannabinoid 2-AG protects the blood-brain barrier after closed head injury and inhibits mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines. Neurobiol Dis 2005;22:257–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pascual M, Guerri C. The peptide NAP promotes neuronal growth and differentiation through extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase and Akt pathways, and protects neurons co-cultured with astrocytes damaged by ethanol. J Neurochem 2007;103:557–68.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen MO, Larsen A, Stoltenberg M, Penkowa M. Bio-released gold ions modulate expression of neuroprotective and hematopoietic factors after brain injury. Brain Res 2010;1307:1–13.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perera TD, Coplan JD, Lisanby SH, et al. Antidepressant-induced neurogenesis in the hippocampus of adult nonhuman primates. J Neurosci 2007;27:4894–901.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perumal J, Filippi M, Ford C, et al. Glatiramer acetate therapy for multiple sclerosis: a review. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2006;2:1019–29.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Picconi B, Tortiglione A, Barone I, et al. NR2B subunit exerts a critical role in postischemic synaptic plasticity. Stroke 2006;37:1895–901.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pozzi S, Benedusi V, Maggi A, Vegeto E. Estrogen action in neuroprotection and brain inflammation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006;1089:302–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prandini MN, Neves Filho A, Lapa AJ, Stavale JN. Mild hypothermia reduces polymorphonuclear leukocytes infiltration in induced brain inflammation. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2005;63(3B):779–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Profice P, Pilato F, Dileone M, et al. Use of transcranial magnetic stimulation of the brain in stroke rehabilitation. Expert Rev Neurother 2007;7:249–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ratai EM, Bombardier JP, Joo CG, et al. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy reveals neuroprotection by oral minocycline in a nonhuman primate model of accelerated NeuroAIDS. PLoS One 2010;5:e10523.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ritz B, Rhodes SL, Qian L, et al. L-type calcium channel blockers and Parkinson’s disease in Denmark. Ann Neurol 2010;67:600–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruan B, Pong K, Jow F, et al. Binding of rapamycin analogs to calcium channels and FKBP52 contributes to their neuroprotective activities. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008;105:33–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rzigalinski BA, Meehan K, Davis RM, et al. Radical nanomedicine. Nanomedicine 2006;1:399–412.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakata Y, Zhuang H, Kwansa H, et al. Resveratrol protects against experimental stroke: putative neuroprotective role of heme oxygenase 1. Exp Neurol 2010;224:325–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salat D, Ribosa R, García-Bonilla L, Montaner J. Statin use before and after acute ischemic stroke onset improves neurological outcome. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2009;7:1219–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez PE, Fares RP, Risso JJ, et al. Optimal neuroprotection by erythropoietin requires elevated expression of its receptor in neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009;106:9848–53.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Satoh T, Okamoto S, Cui J, et al. Activation of the Keap1/Nrf2 pathway for neuroprotection by electrophillic phase II inducers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006;103:768–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider A, Krüger C, Steigleder T, et al. The hematopoietic factor G-CSF is a neuronal ligand that counteracts programmed cell death and drives neurogenesis. J Clin Invest 2005;115:2083–98.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schubert D, Dargusch R, Raitano J, Chan S. Cerium and yttrium oxide nanoparticles are neuroprotective. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006;342:86–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz M, Kipnis J. Therapeutic T cell-based vaccination for neurodegenerative disorders: the role of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2005;1051:701–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma K, Mehra RD. Long-term administration of estrogen or tamoxifen to ovariectomized rats affords neuroprotection to hippocampal neurons by modulating the expression of Bcl-2 and Bax. Brain Res 2008;1204:1–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shinjyo N, StÃ¥hlberg A, Dragunow M, et al. Complement-derived anaphylatoxin C3a regulates in vitro differentiation and migration of neural progenitor cells. Stem Cells 2009;27:2824–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simpkins JW, Dykens JA. Mitochondrial mechanisms of estrogen neuroprotection. Brain Res Rev 2008;57:421–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith-Swintosk VL, Gozes I, Brenneman D, et al. Activity-dependent neurotrophic factor-9 and NAP promote neurite outgrowth in rat hippocampal and cortical cultures. J Mol Neurosci 2005;25:225–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sofi F, Valecchi D, Bacci D, et al. Physical activity and risk of cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Int Med 2011;269:107–17.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stone TW, Ceruti S, Abbracchio MP. Adenosine receptors and neurological disease: neuroprotection and neurodegeneration. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2009;193:535–87.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tan BH, Wong PT, Bian JS. Hydrogen sulfide: a novel signaling molecule in the central nervous system. Neurochem Int 2010;56:3–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tiwari-Woodruff S, et al. Differential neuroprotective and antiinflammatory effects of estrogen receptor (ER)α and ERβ ligand treatment. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007;104:14813–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van der Most PJ, Dolga AM, Nijholt IM, et al. Statins: mechanisms of neuroprotection. Prog Neurobiol 2009;88:64–75.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Vliet SA, Blezer EL, Jongsma MJ, et al. Exploring the neuroprotective effects of modafinil in a marmoset Parkinson model with immunohistochemistry, magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy. Brain Res 2008;1189:219–28.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vogiatzoglou A, Refsum H, Johnston C, et al. Vitamin B12 status and rate of brain volume loss in community-dwelling elderly. Neurology 2008;71:826–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vulih-Shultzman I, Pinhasov A, Mandel S, et al. Activity-dependent neuroprotective protein snippet NAP reduces tau hyperphosphorylation and enhances learning in a novel transgenic mouse model. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007;323:438–49.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang H, Gao J, Lassiter TF, et al. Levetiracetam is neuroprotective in murine models of closed head injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2006;5:71–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang R, Li YH, Xu Y, et al. Curcumin produces neuroprotective effects via activating brain-derived neurotrophic factor/TrkB-dependent MAPK and PI-3K cascades in rodent cortical neurons. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2010a;34:147–53.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Lu J, Bond MC, et al. Identification of select glucocorticoids as Smoothened agonists: potential utility for regenerative medicine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010b;107:9323–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Webster NJ, Pirrung MC. Small molecule activators of the Trk receptors for neuroprotection. BMC Neurosci 2008;9(Suppl 2):S1.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wildburger NC, Lin-Ye A, Baird MA, et al. Neuroprotective effects of blockers for T-type calcium channels. Mol Neurodegener 2009;4:44.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woitzik J, Weinzierl N, Schilling L. Early administration of a second-generation perfluorochemical decreases ischemic brain damage in a model of permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat. Neurol Res 2005;27:509–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xie MW, Jin F, Hwang H, et al. Insights into TOR function and rapamycin response: chemical genomic profiling by using a high-density cell array method. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005;102:7215–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang C, Zhang X, Fan H, Liu Y. Curcumin upregulates transcription factor Nrf2, HO-1 expression and protects rat brains against focal ischemia. Brain Res 2009;1282:133–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yenari MA, Xu L, Tang XN, et al. Microglia potentiate damage to blood-brain barrier constituents: improvement by minocycline in vivo and in vitro. Stroke 2006;37:1087–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ying W. NAD+ and NADH in brain functions, brain diseases and brain aging. Front Biosci 2007;12:1863–88.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zawadzka M, Kaminska B. A novel mechanism of FK506-mediated neuroprotection: downregulation of cytokine expression in glial cells. Glia 2005;49:36–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeynalov E, Doré S. Low doses of carbon monoxide protect against experimental focal brain ischemia. Neurotox Res 2009;15(2):133–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao J, Moore AN, Clifton GL, Dash PK. Sulforaphane enhances aquaporin-4 expression and decreases cerebral edema following traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci Res 2005;82:499–506.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao J, Moore AN, Redell JB, Dash PK. Enhancing expression of Nrf2-driven genes protects the blood-brain barrier following brain injury. J Neurosci 2007;27:10240–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao J, Yu S, Zheng W, et al. Curcumin improves outcomes and attenuates focal cerebral ischemic injury via antiapoptotic mechanisms in rats. Neurochem Res 2010;35:374–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu M, Ackerman JJ, Sukstanskii A, et al. How the body controls brain temperature: the temperature shielding effect of cerebral blood flow. J Appl Physiol 2006;101:1481–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhuang J, Li F, Liu X, et al. Lithium chloride protects retinal neurocytes from nutrient deprivation by promoting DNA non-homologous end-joining. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009;380:650–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zlotnik A, Gurevich B, Tkachov S, et al. Brain neuroprotection by scavenging blood glutamate. Exp Neurol 2007;203:213–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Jain PharmaBiotech, Blaesiring 7, Basel, 4057, Switzerland

    Kewal K. Jain

Authors
  1. Kewal K. Jain
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kewal K. Jain .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Jain, K.K. (2011). Neuroprotective Agents. In: The Handbook of Neuroprotection. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-61779-049-2_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation