Abstract
In this chapter, we establish a theoretical framework for the rare manifestation of synaesthesia for pain; that is, the sensation in one part of the body (pain) produced by stimulus (pain) observed or imagined in another. We first describe mirror neuron systems (MNS) and the implications these systems have on imitation, behavioral mimicry, communication, socialization, and empathy. Behavioral and emotional contagion may signify disinhibition of behavioral mirroring that is closest to synaesthesia for pain. We describe cases of synaesthesia for pain, including one case of mirrored pain with hyperalgesia, eight cases of mirrored pain in a phantom limb following amputation, one case of mirrored pain in the stump following amputation, and one case of mirrored pain following traumatic childbirth. We then explore the mechanisms that may underlie the experience of pain when observing, or even thinking about, another in pain, including mirror neurons, empathy, and motor systems, the Autonomic Nervous System and visceral mechanisms, and the potential role of sensitization to pain and hypervigilance to pain cues. We conclude that synaesthesia for pain is most likely a consequence of disinhibited activation, or central sensitization, of a fundamentally adaptive system for the empathic perception of pain in another.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abler, B., Walter, H., & Erk, S. (2005). Neural correlates of frustration. NeuroReport, 16(7), 669–672.
Allen, R. P., Picchietti, D., Hening, W. A., Trenkwalder, C., Walters, A. S., & Montplaisir, J. (2003). Restless legs syndrome: Diagnostic criteria, special considerations, and epidemiology. A report from the restless legs syndrome diagnosis and epidemiology workshop at the National Institutes of Health. Sleep Medicine, 4(2), 101–119.
Archibald, S. J., Meateer, C. A., & Kerns, K. A. (2001). Utilization behavior: Clinical manifestations and neurological mechanisms. Neuropsychology Reviews, 11(3), 117–130.
Arntz, A., Dreessen, L., & Merckelbach, H. (1991). Attention, Not Anxiety, Influences Pain. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29(1), 41–50.
Avenanti, A., Bueti, D., Galati, G., & Aglioti, S. M. (2005). Transcranial magnetic stimulation highlights the sensorimotor side of empathy for pain. Nature Neuroscience, 8(7), 955–960.
Bach, P., & Tipper, S. P. (2006). Bend it like Beckham: Embodying the motor skills of famous athletes. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59(12), 2033–2039.
Bach, P., & Tipper, S. P. (2007). Implicit action encoding influences personal-trait judgements. Cognition, 102, 151–178.
Bantick, S. J., Wise, R. G., Ploghaus, A., Clare, S., Smith, S. M., & Tracey, I. (2002). Imaging how attention modulates pain in humans using functional MRI. Brain, 125(2), 310–319.
Bavelas, J. B., Black, A., Lemery, C. R., & Mullett, J. (1987). Motor mimicry as primitive empathy. In N. Eisenberg & J. Strayer (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 317–338). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Binkofski, F., & Buccino, G. (2004). Motor functions of the Broca's region. Brain and Language, 89(2), 362–369.
Blakemore, S.-J., Bristow, D., Bird, G., Frith, C., & Ward, J. (2005). Somatosensory activations during the observation of touch and a case of vision-touch synaesthesia. Brain, 128(7), 1571–1583.
Both, S., Everaerd, W., & Laan, E. (2003). Modulation of spinal reflexes by aversive and sexually appetitive stimuli. Psychophysiology, 40, 174–183.
Bradshaw, J. L. (2003). Gesture in language evolution: Could I but raise my hand to it! Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 26(2), 213–214.
Bradshaw, J. L., & Mattingley, J. B. (2001). Allodynia: A sensory analogue of motor mirror neurons in a hyperaesthetic patient reporting instantaneous discomfort to another's perceived sudden minor injury? Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 70(1), 135–140.
Buccino, G., Binkofski, F., Fink, G. R., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., Gallese, V., et al. (2001). Action observation activates premotor and parietal areas in a somatotopic manner: An fMRI study. European Journal of Neuroscience, 13(2), 400–404.
Buccino, G., Binkofski, F., & Riggio, L. (2004). The mirror neuron system and action recognition. Brain and Language, 89(2), 370–376.
Buccino, G., Riggio, L., Melli, G., Binkofski, F., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. (2005). Listening to action-related sentences modulates the activity of the motor system: A combined TMS and behavioural study. Cognitive Brain Research, 24(3), 355–363.
Carr, L., Iacoboni, M., Dubeau, M.-C., Mazziotta, J. C., & Lenzi, G. L. (2003). Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: A relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(9), 5497–5502.
Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behaviour link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(6), 893–910.
Corballis, M. C. (2002). From hand to mouth : The origins of language. Princeton: Oxford Princeton University Press.
Corballis, M. C. (2003). From mouth to hand: Gesture, speech and the evolution of right-handedness. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 26, 199–260.
De Renzi, E., Francesca, C., & Stefano, F. (1996). Imitation and utilisation behaviour. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 61(4), 396–400.
de Vignemont, F., & Singer, T. (2006). The empathic brain: How, when and why? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(10), 435–441.
Effron, D. A., Niedenthal, P. A., Gil, S., & Droit-Volet, S. (2006). Embodied temporal perception of emotion. Emotion, 6(1), 1–9.
Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302, 290–292.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17(2), 124–129.
Emery, N. J. (2000). The eyes have it: The neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze. Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Reviews, 24(6), 581–604.
Fadiga, L., Craighero, L., & Olivier, E. (2005). Human motor cortex excitability during the perception of others' action. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 15(2), 213–218.
Flöel, A., Ellger, T., Breitenstein, C., & Knecht, S. (2003). Language perception activates the hand motor cortex: Implications for motor theories of speech perception. European Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 704–708.
Flor, H. (2002). Phantom limb pain. In V. S. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the human brain (Vol. 3). New York: Academic Press.
Gallese, V. (2001). The 'shared manifold' hypothesis - From mirror neurons to empathy. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 8(5–7), 33–50.
Gallese, V. (2003). The roots of empathy: The shared manifold hypothesis and the neural basis of intersubjectivity. Psychopathology, 36(4), 171–180.
Giummarra, M. J., & Bradshaw, J. L. (2007). Synaesthesia for pain following painful labour. Australia, Clayton: Monash University.
Giummarra, M. J., Georgiou-Karistianis, N., Gibson, S. J., Chou, M., & Bradshaw, J. L. (2006, 25–31 August). The menacing phantom: What triggers phantom limb pain and why? Paper presented at the Australasian Winter Conference on Brain Research, Queenstown, New Zealand.
Giummarra, M. J., Gibson, S. J., Georgiou-Karistianis, N., & Bradshaw, J. L. (2007). Central mechanisms in phantom limb perception: the past, present and future. Brain Research Reviews, 54(1), 219–232.
Godinho, F., Magnin, M., Frot, M., Perchet, C., & Garcia-Larrea, L. (2006). Emotional modulation of pain: Is it the sensation or what we recall? The Journal of Neuroscience, 26(44), 11454–11461.
Hamzei, F., Rijntjes, M., Dettmers, C., Glauche, V., Weiller, C., & Buchel, C. (2003). The human action recognition system and its relationship to Broca's area: An fMRI study. Neuroimage, 19(3), 637–644.
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1994). Emotional contagion. Cambridge, MA: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Heyes, C., Bird, G., Johnson, H., & Haggard, P. (2005). Experience modulates automatic imitation. Cognitive Brain Research, 22, 233–240.
Hill, M. L., & Craig, K. D. (2002). Detecting deception in pain expressions: the structure of genuine and deceptive facial displays. Pain, 98(1–2), 135–144.
Hill, M. L., & Craig, K. D. (2004). Detecting deception in facial expressions of pain: Accuracy and training. Clinical Journal of Pain, 20(6), 415–422.
Hsieh, J. C., Belfrage, M., Stoneelander, S., Hansson, P., & Ingvar, M. (1995). Central representation of chronic ongoing neuropathic pain studied positron emission tomography. Pain, 63(2), 225–236.
Iacoboni, M., & Dapretto, M. (2006). The mirror neuron system and the consequences of its dysfunction. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 942–951.
Iacoboni, M., Woods, R. P., Brass, M., Bekkering, H., Mazziotta, J. C., & Rizzolatti, G. (1999). Cortical mechanisms of human imitation. Science, 286(5449), 2526–2528.
Jackson, P. L., Brunet, E., Meltzoff, A. N., & Decety, J. (2006). Empathy examined through the neural mechanisms involved in imagining how I feel versus how you feel pain. Neuropsychologia, 44(5), 752–761.
Jackson, P. L., Meltzoff, A. N., & Decety, J. (2005). How do we perceive the pain of others? A window into the neural processes involved in empathy. NeuroImage, 24, 771–779.
Jackson, P. L., Rainville, P., & Decety, J. (2006). To what extent do we share the pain of others? Insight from the neural bases of pain empathy. Pain, 125(1–2), 5–9.
Ji, R. R., Kohno, T., Moore, K. A., & Woolf, C. J. (2003). Central sensitization and LTP: do pain and memory share similar mechanisms? Trends in Neurosciences, 26(12), 696–705.
Katz, J. (1992). Psychophysiological contributions to phantom limbs. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 37, 282–298.
Keysers, C., Wicker, B., Gazzola, V., Anton, J. L., Fogassi, L., & Gallese, V. (2004). A touching sight: SII/PV activation during the observation and experience of touch. Neuron, 42, 335–346.
Lakin, J. L., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). Using nonconscious behavioural mimicry to create affiliation and rapport. Psychological Science, 14(4), 334–339.
Lakin, J. L., Jefferis, V. E., Cheng, C. M., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). The chameleon effect as social glue: Evidence for the evolutionary significance of nonconscious mimicry. Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 27(3), 145–162.
Lhermitte, F., Pillon, B., & Serdaru, M. (1986). human autonomy and the frontal lobes: I. Imitation and utilization behavior: A neurpsychological study of 75 patients. Annals of Neurology, 19(4), 326–334.
Mattingley, J. B. (2002). Visuomotor adaptation to optical prisms: A new cure for spatial neglect? Cortex, 38, 277–283.
McCabe, C. S., Haigh, R. C., Ring, E. F. J., Halligan, P., Wall, P. D., & Blake, D. R. (2003). A controlled pilot study of the utility of mirror visual feedback in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome (type 1). Rheumatology, 42(1), 97–101.
Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, 198, 75–78.
Melzack, R., Isreal, R., Lacroix, R., & Schultz, G. (1997). Phantom limbs in people with congenital limb deficiency or amputation in early childhood. Brain, 120, 1603–1620.
Miron, D., Duncan, G. H., & Bushnell, M. C. (1989). Effects of attention on the intensity and unpleasantness of thermal pain. Pain, 39(3), 345–352.
Morrison, I., Lloyd, D., & Di Pellegrino, G. (2004). Vicarious responses to pain in anterior cingulate cortex: Is empathy a multisensory issue? Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioural Neuroscience, 4(2), 270–278.
Myowa-Yamakoshi, M., Tamonaga, M., Tanaka, M., & Matsuzawa, T. (2003). Preference for human direct gaze in infant chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Cognition, 89, B53–B64.
Platek, S. M., Critton, S. R., Myers, T. E., & Gallup, G. G. (2003). Contagious yawning: the role of self-awareness and mental state attribution. Cognitive Brain Research, 17, 223–227.
Porro, C. A., Baraldi, P., Pagnoni, G., Serafini, M., Facchin, P., Maieron, M., et al. (2002). Does anticipation of pain affect cortical nociceptive systems? The Journal of Neuroscience, 22(8), 3206–3214.
Preston, S. D., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2002). Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 1–72.
Reid, V. M., Stiano, T., Kaufman, J., & Johnson, M. H. (2004). Eye gaze cueing facilitates neural processing of objects in 4-mont-old infants. NeuroReport, 15(16), 2553–2555.
Ricciardelli, P., Bricolo, E., Aglioti, S. M., & Chelazzi, L. (2002). My eyes want to look where your eyes are looking: Exploring the tendency to imitate another individual's gaze. NeuroReport, 13(17), 2259–2264.
Rinn, W. E. (1984). The neuropsychology of facial expression: A review of the neurological and psychological mechanisms for producing facial expressions. Psychological Bulletin, 95(1), 52–77.
Rizzolatti, G., & Arbib, M. A. (1998). Language within our grasp. Trends in Neuroscience, 21(5), 188–194.
Rizzolatti, G., Camarda, R., Fogassi, L., Gentilucci, M., Luppino, G., & Matelli, M. (1988). Functional organization of inferior area 6 in the macaque monkey. II. Area F5 and the control of distal movements. Experimental Brain Research, 71, 491–507.
Rizzolatti, G., Craighero, L., & Fadiga, L. (2002). The mirror system in humans. In M. I. Stamenov & V. Gallese (Eds.), Mirror neurons and the evolution of brain and language (Vol. 42, pp. 37–59). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Rollman, G. B., Abdel-Shaheed, J., Gillespie, J. M., & Jones, K. S. (2004). Does past pain influence current pain: biological and psychosocial models of sex differences. European Journal of Pain, 8(5), 427–433.
Ruby, P., & Decety, J. (2004). How would you feel versus how do you think she would feel? A neuroimaging study of perspective taking with social emotions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(6), 988–999.
Russell, J. A. (1994). Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial expression? A review of the cross-cultural studies. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 102–141.
Saarela, M., Hlushchuk, Y., de C Williams, A. C., Schürmann, M., Kalso, E., & Hari, R. (2007). The compassionate brain: Humans detect intensity of pain from another's face. Cerebral Cortex, 17(1), 230–237.
Sawamoto, N., Honda, M., Okada, T., Hanakawa, T., Kanda, M., Fukuyama, H., et al. (2000). Expectation of pain enhances responses to nonpainful somatosensory stimulation in the anterior cingulate cortex and parietal operculum/posterior insula: An event-relate functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of Neuroscience, 20(19), 7438–7445.
Schwoebel, J., Boronat, C. B., & Coslett, H. B. (2002). The man who executed “imagined” movements: Evidence for dissociable components of the body schema. Brain and Cognition, 50(1), 1–16.
Siegel, J. M. (2006). The stuff dreams are made of: Anatomical substrates of REM sleep. Nature Neuroscience, 9(6), 721–722.
Simon, D., Craig, K. D., Miltner, W. H. R., & Rainville, P. (2006). Brain responses to dynamic facial expressions of pain. Pain, 126(1–3), 309–318.
Singer, T. (2006). The neuronal basis and ontogeny of empathy and mind reading: Review of literature and implications for future research. Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Reviews, 30, 855–863.
Singer, T., Seymour, B., O'Doherty, J., Kaube, H., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. (2004). Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain. Science, 303(5661), 1157–1162.
Sonnby-Borgström, M. (2002). Automatic mimicry reactions as related to differences in emotional empathy. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 43, 433–443.
Sonnby-Borgström, M., Johnsson, P., & Svensson, O. (2003). Emotional empathy as related to mimicry reactions at different levels of information processing. Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 27(1), 3–23.
Sullivan, M. J. L., Martel, M. O., Tripp, D. A., Savard, A., & Crombez, G. (2006). Catastrophic thinking and heightened perception of pain in others. Pain, 123(1–2), 37–44.
Suzuki, R., & Dickenson, A. (2005). Spinal and supraspinal contributions to central sensitization in peripheral neuropathy. Neurosignals, 14(4), 175–181.
van Damme, S., Crombez, G., Eccleston, C., & Goubert, L. (2004). Impaired disengagement from threatening cues of impending pain in a cross-modal cueing paradigm. European Journal of Pain, 8, 227–236.
van der Velde, J., & Everaerd, W. (2001). The relationship between involuntary pelvic floor muscle activity, muscle awareness and experienced threat in women with and without vaginismus. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 395–408.
Veldhuijzen, D. S., Kenemans, J. L., de Bruin, C. M., Olivier, B., & Volkerts, E. R. (2006). Pain and attention: Attentional disruption or distraction? The Journal of Pain, 7(1), 11–20.
Wicker, B., Keysers, C., Plailly, J., Royet, J. P., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. (2003). Both of us disgusted in my insula: The common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust. Neuron, 40(3), 655–664.
Wiech, K., Seymour, B., Kalisch, R., Stephan, K. E., Koltzenburg, M., Driver, J., et al. (2005). Modulation of pain processing in hyperalgesia by cognitive demand. NeuroImage, 27, 59–69.
Wilkins, K. L., McGrath, P. J., Finley, G. A., & Katz, J. (2004). Prospective diary study of nonpainful and painful phantom sensations in a preselected sample of child and adolescent amputees reporting phantom limbs. Clinical Journal of Pain, 20(5), 293–301.
Williams, A. C. D. (2002). Facial expressions of pain: An evolutionary account. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25(4), 439–488.
Wilson, M. (2006). Covert imitation: How the body schema acts as a prediciton device. In G. Knoblich, I. M. THornton, M. Grosjean & M. Shiffrar (Eds.), Human body perception from the inside out (pp. 211–228). New York: Oxford University Press.
Wohldmann, E. L., Healy, A. F., & Bourne, L. E. (2007). Pushing the limits of imagination: Mental practice for learning sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology – Learning, Memory and Cognition, 33(1), 254–261.
Yabar, Y., Johnston, L., Miles, L., & Peace, V. (2006). Implicit behavioural mimicry: Investigating the impact of group membership. Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 30(3), 97–113.
Zajonc, R. B., Adelmann, K. A., Murphy, S. T., & Niedenthal, P. M. (1987). Convergence in the physical appearance of spouses. Motivation and Emotion, 11, 335–346.
Zusman, M. (2002). Forebrain-mediated sensitization of central pain pathways: 'non-specific' pain and a new image for MT. Manual Therapy, 7(2), 80–88.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Giummarra, M.J., Bradshaw, J.L. (2008). Synaesthesia for Pain: Feeling Pain with Another. In: Pineda, J.A. (eds) Mirror Neuron Systems. Contemporary Neuroscience. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-479-7_13
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-479-7_13
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-934115-34-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-59745-479-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)