Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Nutrition and Health Series ((NH))

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. World Health Organisation, UNICEF, UN Population Fund. Maternal mortality in 2000: estimates developed by WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  2. World Health Organisation. World health report 2005. Make every mother and child count. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Ronsmans C, Graham WJ, Lancet Maternal Survival Series Steering Group. Maternal mortality: who, when, where, and why. Lancet 2006;368:1189–1200.

    Google Scholar 

  4. United Nations. The Millennium Development Goals report. United Nations, 2005. Available at: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/pdf/MDG%20Book.pdf.

  5. Campbell OMR, Graham W. Measuring maternal mortality and morbidity: levels and trends. London: London School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 1991. Maternal and Child Epidemiology Unit Publication No. 2.

    Google Scholar 

  6. World Health Organisation. Statistical classification of diseases and related health problems. Tenth revision. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Ronsmans C, Vanneste AM, Chakraborty J, Van Ginneken J. A comparison of three verbal autopsy methods to ascertain levels and causes of maternal deaths in Matlab, Bangladesh. Int J Epidemiol 1998;27:660–666.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. West KP, Katz J, Khatry SK, et al. Double blind cluster randomised trial of low dose supplementation with vitamin A and β carotene on mortality related to pregnancy in Nepal. BMJ 1999;318:570–575.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Ronsmans C, Walraven G, Etard JF. Verbal autopsies: learning from reviewing deaths in the community. In: Beyond the numbers. Reviewing maternal deaths and complications to make pregnancy safer. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Fawcus SR, Van Coeverden de Groot HA, Isaacs S. A 50-year audit of maternal mortality in the Peninsula Maternal and Neonatal Service, Cape Town (1953–2002). Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2005;112: 1257–2002.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Fauveau V, Blanchet T. deaths from injuries and induced abortion among rural Bangladeshi women. Soc Sci Med 1989;9:1121–1127.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Fortney J. Measurement and levels of maternal mortality. In: Demographie: analyse et synthèse- causes et conséquences des évolutions démographiques. Actes du séminaire de San Miniato (Pise), 17–19 December 1997, vol. 1. Rome, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Ganatra BR, Goyaji KR, Rao VN. Too far, too little, too late: a community-based case-control study of maternal mortality in rural west Maharashtra, India. Bull World Health Organ 1998;76:591–598.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Ronsmans C, Khlat M. Adolescence and risk of violent death during pregnancy in Matlab, Bangladesh. Lancet 1999;354:1448.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Ronsmans C, Lewis G, Hurt L, et al. Mortality in pregnant and non-pregnant women in England and Wales 1997–2002: are pregnant women healthier? In: Why mothers die 2000–2002. Confidential enquiry into maternal and child health. Improving the health of mothers, babies and children. Lewis G, ed. London: RCOG, 2004: Chap. 20.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Khlat M, Guillaume A. Evolution du concept de mortalité maternelle et émergence de la mortalité violente en relation avec la grossesse. In: Santé de la Reproduction au Nord et au Sud: de la connaissance à l'action. Louvain-la-Neuve: Academia-Bruylant (Collection Chaire Quételet), 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Bouvier-Colle MH, Varnoux N, Costes P, et al. Reasons for the underreporting of maternal mortality in France, as indicated by a survey of all deaths among women of childbearing age. Int J Epidemiol 1991;20:717–721.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Campbell OMR, and Graham W. Measuring maternal mortality and morbidity: levels and trends. London: London School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 1991. Maternal and Child Epidemiology Unit Publication No. 2.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Khan KS, Wojdyla D, Say L, Gulmezoglu AM, Van Look P. WHO systematic review of causes of maternal deaths. Lancet 2006,367:1066–1074.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Stewart MK, Stanton CK, Festin M, Jacobson N. Issues in measuring maternal morbidity: lessons from the Philippines Safe Motherhood Survey Project. Stud Fam Plann 1996;27:29–35.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Ronsmans C, Achadi E, Cohen S, Zazri A. Women's recall of obstetric complications in South Kalimantan, Indonesia. Stud Fam Plann 1997;28:203–214.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. De Brouwere V, Van Lerberghe W. Les besoins obstetricaux non-couverts. Paris : L'Harmattan, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  23. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, World Health Organisation, and United Nations Fund for Population Activities. Guidelines for monitoring the availability and use of obstetric services. New York: United Nations Fund for Population Activities, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Filippi V, Brugha R, Browne E, et al. How to do (or not to do) … Obstetric audit in resource poor settings: lessons from a multi-country project auditing “near miss” obstetrical emergencies. Health Policy Plan 2004;19:57–66.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Filippi V, Ronsmans C, Gohou V, et al. Maternity wards or emergency obstetric rooms? Incidence of near-miss events in African hospitals. Acta Obstet Gynaecol Scand 2005;84:11–16.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Groupe MOMA Morbidite maternelle en Afrique de l'Ouest. Resultat d'une enquete en population a Abidjan, Bamako, Niamey, Nouakchott, Ouagadougou, Saint-Louis, Kaolack. INSERM Unite 149. Ministere des affaires etrangeres. Cooperation et Francophonie, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Le Coeur S, Khlat M, Halembokaka G, et al. HIV and the magnitude of pregnancy-related mortality in Pointe Noire, Congo. AIDS 2005;19:69–75.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Peckham CS, Marshall WC. Infections in pregnancy. In: Obstetrical gynecology. Barron SL, Thompson AM, eds. New York: Academic Press, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Espinal MA, Reingold AL, Lavandera M. Effect of pregnancy on the risk of developing active tuberculosis. J Infect Dis 1996;173:488–491.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Bessinger R, Clark R, Kissinger P, et al. Pregnancy is not associated with the progression of HIV disease in women attending an HIV outpatient program. Am J Epidemiol 1998;147:434–440.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Gray RH, Li X, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Brahmbhatt H, et al. Increased risk of incident HIV during pregnancy in Rakai, Uganda: a prospective study. Lancet 2005;366:1182–1188.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Gilbert GL. Infectious diseases in pregnancy and the newborn infant. Paris: Harwood, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Brabin BJ. An analysis of malaria in pregnancy in Africa. Bull World Health Organ 1983;61:1005–1016.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Diagne N, Rogier C, Sokhna C, et al. Increased susceptibility to malaria during the early postpartum period. N Engl J Med 2000;343:598–603.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Whitty C, Edmonds S, Mutabingwa TK. Malaria in pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2005;112:1189–1195.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Luxemburger C, Ricci F, Nosten F, et al. The epidemiology of severe malaria in an area of low transmission in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1997;91:256–262.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Shulman C, Graham W, Jilo H, et al. Malaria as an important cause of anaemia in primigravidae: evidence from a district hospital in coastal Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1996;90:535–539.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Lindsay H. Pregnancy and iron deficiency: unresolved issues. Nutr Rev 1997;55:91–101.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Royston E, Armstrong S. Preventing maternal deaths. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Rush D. Nutrition and maternal mortality in the developing world. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:212S–240S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Shulman CE, Dorman EK, Cutts F, et al. Intermittent sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine to prevent severe anaemia secondary to malaria in pregnancy: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 1999;353:632–636.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. MacLoed J, Rhode R. Retrospective follow-up of maternal deaths and their associated factors in a rural district of Tanzania. Trop Med Intern Health 1998;3:130–137.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Boerma JT, Mati JKG. Identifying maternal mortality through networking: results from coastal Kenya. Stud Fam Plann 1989;20:245–253.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Zucker JR, Lackritz EM, Ruebush TK, et al. Anaemia, blood transfusion practices, HIV and mortality among women of reproductive age in western Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1994;88:173–176.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Campbell OMR, Graham WJ, Lancet Maternal Survival Steering Group. Strategies for reducing maternal mortality: getting on with what works. Lancet 2006;368:1284–1299.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Maine D, Rosenfield A, McCarthy J, et al. Safe Motherhood: options and issues. New York: Columbia University, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Campbell O, Filippi V, Koblinsky M, et al. Lessons learnt. A decade of measuring the impact of safe motherhood programmes. London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  48. De Brouwere V, Tonglet R, Van Lerberghe W. Strategies for reducing maternal mortality in developing countries: what can we learn from the history of the industrialised West? Trop Med Int Health 1998;3:771–782.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Loudon I. Death in childbirth. An international study of maternal care and maternal mortality 1800–1950. Oxford: Clarendon, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Gwatkin DR, Bhuiya A, Victora CG. Making health systems more equitable. Lancet 2004;364:1273–1280.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Graham WJ, Fitzmaurice AE, Bell JS, Cairns JA. The familial technique for linking maternal death with poverty. Lancet 2004;363:23–27.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Shen CE, Williamson JB. Maternal mortality, women's status, and economic dependency in less developed countries: a cross national analysis. Soc Sci Med 1999;49:197–214.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Tinker A, Koblinsky M. Making motherhood safe. World Bank discussion papers. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Winikoff B, Sullivan M. Assessing the role of family planning in reducing maternal mortality. Stud Fam Plann 1987,18:128–143.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Trussell J, Pebley AR. The potential impact of changes in fertility on infant, child and maternal mortality. Stud Fam Plann 1984;15:267–280.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Marston C, Cleland J. The effects of contraception on obstetric outcomes. Geneva: Department of Reproductive Health and Research, WHO, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Fortney J. The importance of family planning in reducing maternal mortality. Commentary. Stud Fam Plann 1987;18:109–114.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Zimicky S. The relationship between fertility and maternal mortality. In: Contraceptive use and controlled fertility. Health issues for women and children. Background papers. Parnell AM, ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1989:1–47.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Harrison K. Child bearing, health and social priorities: a survey of 22,774 consecutive hospital births in Zaria, Northern Nigeria. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985;92:1S–119S.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Sandstrom B. Pregnancy in the young teenage woman. Acta Obstet Gynaecol Scand 1977;66:125S–128S.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Bremberg S. Pregnancy in Swedish teenagers. Scand J Soc Med 1977;5:15–19.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Smith GC, Pell JP. Teenage pregnancy and risk of adverse perinatal outcomes associated with first and second births: population based retrospective cohort study. BMJ 2001;323:476.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Ronsmans C, Campbell OMR. Short birth intervals don't kill women: evidence from Matlab, Bangladesh. Stud Fam Plann 1998;29:282–290.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Conde-Agudelo A, Belizan JM. Maternal morbidity and mortality associated with interpregnancy interval: cross sectional study. BMJ 2000;321:1255–1259.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Rouse DJ. Potential cost-effectiveness of nutrition interventions to prevent adverse pregnancy outcomes in the developing world. J Nutr 2003;133:1640S–1644S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Zarocostas J. UNICEF calls for efforts to eradicate vitamin deficiency. Lancet 2004;363:378.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Aguayo VM, Kone D, Bamba SI, et al. Acceptability of multiple micronutrient supplements by pregnant and lactating women in Mali. Public Health Nutr 2005;8:33–37.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Atallah AN, Hofmeyr GJ, Duley L. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problems. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002:CD001059.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Charles DH, Ness AR, Campbell D, et al. Folic acid supplements in pregnancy and birth outcome: re-analysis of a large randomised controlled trial and update of Cochrane review. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2005;19:112–124.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Kramer MS, Kakuma R. Energy and protein intake in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003: CD000032.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Kramer MS. High protein supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000: CD000105.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Kramer MS. Isocaloric balanced protein supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000:CD000118.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Mahomed K. Folate supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000:CD000183.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Mahomed K. Iron and folate supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000: CD001135.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Mahomed K. Iron supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000:CD000117.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Mahomed K. Zinc supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000:CD000230.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Mahomed K, Gulmezoglu AM. Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000:CD000179.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Mahomed K, Gulmezoglu AM. Vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000:CD000228.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Makrides M, Crowther CA. Magnesium supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001:CD000937.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Rumbold A, Crowther CA. Vitamin C supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005:CD004072.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Villar J, Merialdi M, Gulmezoglu AM, et al. Nutritional interventions during pregnancy for the prevention or treatment of maternal morbidity and preterm delivery: an overview of randomized controlled trials. J Nutr 2003;133:1606S–1625S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Olsen SF. Effect of vitamin A and β carotene supplements on women's health. BMJ 1999;318:551–552.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Ronsmans C, Campbell O and Collumbien M. Slight modifications in definitions could alter interpretation of results. BMJ 1999;319:1201.

    Google Scholar 

  84. UNICEF. Vitamin A supplements save pregnant women's lives. In: The state of the world's children 1998. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998:12–13.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Pantin CG. A study of maternal mortality and midwifery on the Isle of Man, 1882 to 1961. Med Hist 1996;40:141–172.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Goldenberg RL. The plausibility of micronutrient deficiency in relationship to perinatal infection. J Nutr 2003;133:1645S–1648S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Fall CH, Yajnik CS, Rao S, et al. Micronutrients and fetal growth. J Nutr 2003;133:1747S–1756S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Costello AM, Osrin D. Micronutrient status during pregnancy and outcomes for newborn infants in developing countries. J Nutr 2003;133:1757S–1764S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Keen CL, Clegg MS, Hanna LA, et al. The plausibility of micronutrient deficiencies being a significant contributing factor to the occurrence of pregnancy complications. J Nutr 2003;133:1597S–1605S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Neggers Y, Goldenberg RL. Some thoughts on body mass index, micronutrient intakes and pregnancy outcome. J Nutr 2003;133:1737S–1740S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Dujardin B, Van Cutsem R, Lambrechts T. The value of maternal height as a risk factor for dystocia: a meta-analysis. Trop Med Int Health 1996;4:510–521.

    Google Scholar 

  92. World Health Organisation. Maternal anthropometry and pregnancy outcomes. A WHO collaborative study. Bull World Health Organ 1995;73:1S–98S.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Vanneste AM, Ronsmans C, Chakraborty J, de Francisco A. Prenatal screening in rural Bangladesh: from prediction to care. Health Policy Plan 2000;15(1):1–10.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Kramer MS. Nutritional advice in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD000149.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Garner P, Kramer M, Chalmers I. Might efforts to increase birth weight in undernourished women do more harm than good? Lancet 1992;340:1021–1023.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Ceesay SM, Prentice AM, Cole TJ, et al. Effects on birth weight and perinatal mortality of maternal dietary supplements in rural Gambia: 5 year randomised controlled trial. BMJ 1997;315:786–790.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Rivera JA, Martorell R, Ruel MT, et al. Nutritional supplementation during the preschool years influences body size and composition of Guatemalan adolescents. J Nutr 1995;125:1068S–1077S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Belizan JM, Villar J. The relationship between calcium intake and oedema, proteinuria, and hypertension-gestosis: an hypothesis. Am J Clin Nutr 1980;33:2202–2210.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Belizan JM, Villar J, Repke J. The relationship between calcium intake and pregnancy-induced hypertension: up-to-date evidence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;158:898–902.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Villar J, Repke JI. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy may reduce preterm delivery in high risk populations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:1124–1131.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Levine RJ, Hauth JC, Curet LB, Sibai BM, Catalano PM, Morris CD, DerSimonian R, Esterlitz JR, Raymond EG, Bild DE, Clemens JD, Cutler JA. Trial of calcium to prevent preeclampsia. N Engl J Med 1997;337:69–76.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Prentice A, Laskey MA, Shaw J, et al. The calcium and phosphorus intakes of rural Gambian women during pregnancy and lactation. Br J Nutr 1993;69:885–896.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Duckitt K, Harrington D. Risk factors for pre-eclampsia at antenatal booking: systematic review of controlled studies. BMJ 2005;330:565.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Chappell LC, Seed PT, Briley AL, et al. Effect of antioxidants on the occurrence of pre-eclampsia in women at increased risk: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999;354:810–816.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Roberts JM, Hubel CA. Is oxidative stress the link in the two-stage model of pre-eclampsia? Lancet 1999;354:788–789.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. World Health Organisation. The prevalence of anemia in women: a tabulation of available information. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organisation, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Stoltzfus RJ. Rethinking anemia surveillance. Lancet 1997;349:1764–1766.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Rush D. Nutrition and maternal mortality in the developing world. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:212S–240S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Brabin BJ, Hakimi M, Pelletier D. An analysis of anemia and pregnancy-related maternal mortality. J Nutr 2001;131:604S–614S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Allen LH. Anemia and iron deficiency: effects on pregnancy outcome. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:1280S–1284S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Sloan NL, Jordan E, Winikoff B. Effects of iron supplementation on maternal hematologic status in pregnancy. Am J Public Health 2002;92:288–293.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Hemminki E, Rimpela U. A randomised comparison of routine versus elective supplementation during pregnancy. J Am Coll Nutr 1991;10:3–10.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Ekstrom EC, Kavishe FP, Habicht JP, et al. Adherence to iron supplementation during pregnancy in Tanzania: determinants and hematologic consequences. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;64:368–374.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Schultink W, van der Ree M, Matulessi P, Gross R. Low compliance with an iron-supplementation program: a study among pregnant women in Jakarta, Indonesia. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57:135–139.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Galloway R, McGuire J. Determinants of compliance with iron supplementation: supplies, side effects, or psychology. Soc Sci Med 1994;39:381–390.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Ridwan E, Schultink W, Dillon D, Gross R. Effects of weekly iron supplementation on pregnant women are similar to those of daily supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;63:884–890.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Ekstrom EC, Hyder SM, Chowdhury AM, et al. Efficacy and trial effectiveness of weekly and daily iron supplementation among pregnant women in rural Bangladesh: disentangling the issues. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:1392–1400.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Pena-Rosas JP, Nesheim MC, Garcia-Casal MN, et al. Intermittent iron supplementation regimens are able to maintain safe maternal hemoglobin concentrations during pregnancy in Venezuela. J Nutr 2004;134:1099–1104.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. van den Broek NR, White SA, Neilson JP. The relationship between asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection and the prevalence and severity of anemia in pregnant Malawian women. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998;59:1004–1007.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Dreyfuss ML, Stoltzfus RJ, Shrestha JB, et al. Hookworms, malaria and vitamin A deficiency contribute to anemia and iron deficiency among pregnant women in the plains of Nepal. J Nutr 2000;130:2527–2536.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Antelman G, Msamanga GI, Spiegelman D, et al. Nutritional factors and infectious disease contribute to anemia among pregnant women with human immunodeficiency virus in Tanzania. J Nutr 2000;130:1950–1957.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Guyatt HL, Snow RW. The epidemiology and burden of Plasmodium falciparum-related anemia among pregnant women in sub-Saharan Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2001;64:36–44.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Steketee RW. Pregnancy, nutrition and parasitic diseases. J Nutr 2003;133:1661S–1667S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Garner P, Gulmezoglu AM. Drugs for preventing malaria-related illness in pregnant women and death in the newborn. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003:CD000169.

    Google Scholar 

  125. World Health Organisation. Pregnancy, childbirth, postpartum and newborn care: a guide for essential practice: Geneva: World Health Organisation, 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  126. World Health Organisation. A strategic framework for malaria prevention and control during pregnancy in the African region. Geneva: World Health Organisation, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Faisel H, Pittrof R. Vitamin A and causes of maternal mortality: association and biological plausibility. Public Health Nutr 2000;3:321–327.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Semba RD, Bloem MW. The anemia of vitamin A deficiency: epidemiology and pathogenesis. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56:271–281.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Edmund C, Clemmesen SV. On parenteral vitamin A treatment of dysaptatio (nyctalo-hemeralopia) in some pregnant women. Acta Med Scand 1936;89:69–92.

    Google Scholar 

  130. McGanity WJ, Cannon RO, Bridgforth EB, et al. The Vanderbilt cooperative study of maternal and infant nutrition. I V. Relationship of obstetric performance to nutrition. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1954;67:501–527.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Mikhail MS, Palan PR, Basu J, et al. Decreased B carotene levels in exfoliated vaginal epithelial cells in women with vaginal candidiasis. Am J Reprod Immunol 1994;32:221–225.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Christian P, West K P, Khatry SK, et al. Night blindness of pregnancy in rural Nepal — nutritional and health risks. Int J Epidemiol 1998;27:231–237.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Filteau SM, Morris SS, Abbott RA, et al. Influence of morbidity on serum retinol of children in a community-based study in northern Ghana. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;58:192–197.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. van den Broek N, Kulier R, Gulmezoglu AM, Villar J. Vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002:CD001996.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Kennedy CM, Coutsoudis A, Kuhn L, et al. Randomized controlled trial assessing the effect of vitamin A supplementation on maternal morbidity during pregnancy and postpartum among HIV-infected women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2000;24:37–44.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Kennedy-Oji C, Coutsoudis A, Kuhn L, et al. Effects of vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy and early lactation on body weight of South African HIV-infected women. J Health Pop Nutr 2001;19:167–176.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Fawzi WW, Msamanga GI, Spiegelman D, et al. Randomised trial of effects of vitamin supplements on pregnancy outcomes and T cell counts in HIV-1-infected women in Tanzania. Lancet 1998;351:1477–1482.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Dimenstein R, Trugo NM, Donangelo CM, et al. Effect of subadequate maternal vitamin A status on placental transfer of retinol and β carotene to the human fetus. Biol Neonate 1996;69:230–234.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Sharma SC, Bonnar J, Dostaova L. Comparison of blood levels of vitamin A, β carotene and vitamin E in abruption placentae with normal pregnancy. Int J Vit Nutr Res 1986;56:3–9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Basu RJ, Arulanantham R. A study of serum protein and retinol levels in pregnancy and toxaemia of pregnancy in women of low socio-economic status. Indian J Med Res 1973;61:589–595.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Koskinen T, Valtonen P, Lehtovaara I, Tuimal R. Amniotic fluid retinol concentration in late pregnancy. Biol Neonate 1986;49:81–84.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Mikhail MS, Anyaegbunam A, Garfinkel D, et al. Preeclampsia and antioxidant nutrients: decreased plasma levels of reduced ascorbic acid, alpha-tocopherol, and β-carotene in women with preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;171:150–157.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Ziari SA, Mireles VL, Cantu CG, et al. Serum vitamin A, vitamin E, and β carotene levels in preeclamptic women in northern Nigeria. Am J Perinatol 1996;13:287–291.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Salvig JD, Olsen SF, Secher NJ. Effects of fish oil supplementation in late pregnancy on blood pressure: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Obstetr Gynaecol 1996;103:529–533.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Onwude JL, Lilford RJ, Hjartardottie H, et al. A randomised double blind placebo controlled trial of fish oil in high risk pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;102:95–100.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Hathcock JN, Hattan DG, Jenkins MY, et al. Evaluation of vitamin A toxicity. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;52:183–202.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Rothman KJ, Moore LL, Singer MR, et al. Teratogenecity of high vitamin A intake. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1369–1373.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Mills JL, Simpson JL, Cunningham GC, et al. Vitamin A and birth defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:31–36.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Sazawal S, Black RE, Bhan MK, et al. Efficacy of zinc supplementation in reducing the incidence and prevalence of acute diarrhea—a community-based, double-blind, controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:413–418.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Sazawal S, Black RE, Jalla S, et al. Zinc supplementation reduces the incidence of acute lower respiratory infections in infants and preschool children: a double-blind, controlled trial. Pediatrics 1998;102:1–5.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Prema K, Ramalakshmi BA, Neelakumari S. Serum copper and zinc in pregnancy. Indian J Med Res 1980;71:547–553.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. McMichael AJ, Dreosti IE, Gibson GT, et al. A prospective study of serial maternal serum zinc levels and pregnancy outcome. Early Hum Dev 1982;7:59–69.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Jameson S. Zinc and copper in pregnancy, correlations to fetal and maternal complications. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1976;593:5–20.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Jameson S. Zinc status in pregnancy: the effect of zinc therapy on perinatal mortality, prematurity, and placental ablation. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993;678:178–192.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Cherry FF, Bennett EA, Bazzano GS, et al. Plasma zinc in hypertension/toxemia and other reproductive variables in adolescent pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 1981;34:2367–2375.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Hunt IF, Murphy NJ, Cleaver AE, et al. Zinc supplementation during pregnancy: effects on selected blood constituents and on progress and outcome of pregnancy in low income women of Mexican descent. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40:508–521.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Caulfield LE, Zavaleta N, Figueroa A. Adding zinc to prenatal iron and folate supplements improves maternal and neonatal zinc status in a Peruvian population. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69:1257–1263.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Goldenberg RL, Tamura T, Neggers Y, et al. The effect of zinc supplementation on pregnancy outcome. JAMA 1995;274:463–468.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Ramakrishnan U, Neufeld LM, Gonzalez-Cossio T, et al. Multiple micronutrient supplements during pregnancy do not reduce anemia or improve iron status compared to iron-only supplements in semirural Mexico. J Nutr 2004;134:898–903.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Christian P, Shrestha J, LeClerq SC, et al. Supplementation with micronutrients in addition to iron and folic acid does not further improve the hematologic status of pregnant women in rural Nepal. J Nutr 2003;133:3492–3498.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Makola D, Ash DM, Tatala SR, Latham MC, Ndossi G, Mehansho H. A micronutrient-fortified beverage prevents iron deficiency, reduces anemia and improves the hemoglobin concentration of pregnant Tanzanian women. J Nutr 2003;133:1339–1346.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Villamor E, Msamanga G, Spiegelman D, et al. Effect of multivitamin and vitamin A supplements on weight gain during pregnancy among HIV-1-infected women. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:1082–1090.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Fawzi WW, Msamanga GI, Spiegelman D, et al. A randomized trial of multivitamin supplements and HIV disease progression and mortality. N Engl J Med 2004;351:23–32.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund/World Health Organisation/United Nations University. Multiple Micronutrient Supplementation During Pregnancy (MMSDP): efficacy trials. Report of a meeting held on March 4–8, 2002, at the Centre for International Child Health, Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  165. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund/World Health Organisation/United Nations University. Composition of a multi-micronutrient supplement to be used in pilot programmes among pregnant women in developing countries. Report of a Workshop held at United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund headquarters, New York, July 9, 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  166. Osrin D, Vaidya A, Shrestha Y, et al. Effects of antenatal multiple micronutrient supplementation on birthweight and gestational duration in Nepal: double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;365:955–962.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Rooney C. Antenatal care and maternal health: How effective is it? A review of the evidence. Geneva: World Health Organisation, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Carroli G, Rooney C, Villar J. How effective is antenatal care in preventing maternal mortality and serious morbidity? An overview of the evidence. Pediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2001;15:1S–42S.

    Google Scholar 

  169. Browne, Aberd. Antenatal care and maternal mortality. Lancet 1932;ii:1–4.

    Google Scholar 

  170. Kasongo Project Team. Antenatal screening for fetopelvic dystocias: a cost-effectiveness approach to the choice of simple indicators for use by auxiliary personnel. J Trop Med Hyg 1984;87:173–183.

    Google Scholar 

  171. Villar J, Ba'aqeel H, Piaggio G, Lumbiganon P, Belizan JM, et al. WHO antenatal care randomised trial for the evaluation of a new model of routine antenatal care. Lancet 2001;357:1551–1564.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Greenwood AM, Bradley AK, Byass P, et al. Evaluation of a primary health care programme in the Gambia. I. The impact of trained traditional birth attendants on the outcome of pregnancy. J Trop Med Hyg 1990;93:58–66.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Fauveau V, Chakraborty J. Women's health and maternity care in Matlab. In: Matlab, women, children and health. Fauveau V, ed. Dhaka: International Centre for Diarrhoeal Diseases Research, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  174. Bergstrom S, Goodburn E. The role of traditional birth attendants in the reduction of maternal mortality. Stud Health Serv Organ Policy 2001;17:77–96.

    Google Scholar 

  175. Manandhar DS, Osrin D, Shrestha BP, et al. Effect of a participatory intervention with women's groups on birth outcomes in Nepal: cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004;364:970–979.

    Google Scholar 

  176. Jokhio AH, Winter HR, Cheng KK. An intervention involving traditional birth attendants and perinatal and maternal mortality in Pakistan. N Engl J Med 2005;352:2091–2099.

    Google Scholar 

  177. Koblinsky M, Tinker A, Daly P. Programming for safe motherhood: a guide to action. Health Policy Plan 1994;9:252–266.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Koblinsky MA, Campbell O, Heichelheim J. Organizing delivery care: what works for safe motherhood? Bull World Health Organ 1999;77:399–406.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Sai FT, Measham DM. Safe Motherhood Initiative: getting our priorities straight. Lancet 1992;339: 478–480.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Koblinsky M, Matthews Z, Hussein J, Mavalankar D, Mridha MK, Anwar I, et al. Going to scale with professional skilled care. Lancet 2006;368:1377–1386.

    Google Scholar 

  181. Borghi J, Ensor T, Somanathan A, Lissner C, Mills A, Lancet Maternal Survival Steering Group. Mobilising financial resources for maternal health. Lancet 2006;368:1457–1465.

    Google Scholar 

  182. Kaunitz AM, Spence C, Danielson TS, Rochat RW, Grimes DA. Perinatal and maternal mortality in a religious group avoiding obstetric care. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984;150:826–831.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Hogberg U, Wall S, Brostom G. The impact of early medical technology of maternal mortality in late nineteenth century Sweden. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1986;24:251–261.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Egypt Ministry of Health. National maternal mortality study: Egypt 1992–1993. Findings and conclusions. Cairo: Child Survival Project, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  185. Sundari TK. The untold story: how the health care system in developing countries contribute to maternal mortality. Int J Health Serv 1992;22:513–518.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Maine D, Akalin MZ, Chakraborty J, de Francisco A, Strong M. Why did maternal mortality decline in Matlab? Stud Fam Plann 1996;27:179–181.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Ronsmans C, Vanneste AM, Chakraborty J, Van Ginneken J. Maternal mortality decline in Matlab, Bangladesh: a cautionary tale. Lancet 1997;350:1810–1814.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Lamb WH, Foord FA, Lamb CMB, Whitehead RG. Changes in maternal and child mortality rates in three isolated Gambian villages over ten years. Lancet 1984;2:912–914.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Foord F. Gambia: evaluation of mobile health care service in West Kiang district. World Health Stat Q 1995;48:18–22.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Zhenxuan X. China: lowering maternal mortality in Miyun county, Beijing. World Health Stat Q 1995;48:11–14.

    Google Scholar 

  191. Filippi V, Ronsmans C, Campbell OMR, Graham WJ, Mills A, Borghi J, et al. Maternal health in poor countries: the broader context and a call for action. Lancet 2006;368:1535–1541.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Ronsmans, C., Collin, S., Filippi, V. (2008). Maternal Mortality in Developing Countries. In: Semba, R.D., Bloem, M.W., Piot, P. (eds) Nutrition and Health in Developing Countries. Nutrition and Health Series. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-464-3_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-464-3_2

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-934115-24-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-59745-464-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics