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The Torso-Orthograde Positional Behavior of Wild White-Handed Gibbons (Hylobates lar)

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Evolution of Gibbons and Siamang

Part of the book series: Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects ((DIPR))

Abstract

Torso-orthograde (TO)-positional behavior is a unifying characteristic of extant hominoids. Previous studies have highlighted the unique use of forelimb-suspensory dominated locomotion and posture among hylobatids, a tremendously successful radiation of small hominoid primates, often neglecting the importance of other TO-positional behaviors, causing hylobatid locomotion and posture to appear more stereotypic and less versatile, relative to the closely related large-bodied nonhuman hominids (great apes). However, early and recent studies of hylobatid positional behavior have lacked the categorical detail necessary to effectively analyze and compare their TO-diversity and contextual use of TO-positional behaviors to those of other primates and in particular the large-bodied nonhuman hominids. To address the deficit of knowledge of the complete positional repertoire of hylobatids, we observed in detail the positional behavior of a large sample of adult white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar) at Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. We evaluated the TO-positional repertoire of 24 adult gibbons (11 females and 13 males), and the contextual use of their TO-positional repertoire. Our results indicate that lar gibbons possess and use a diverse TO-positional repertoire that is comparable to that of large-bodied hominids. A collective and flexible use of TO-locomotion and -posture allows lar gibbons to maximize their exploitation of the arboreal canopy. We argue that hylobatids unique suspensory locomotion and posture coupled with a previously undocumented TO-versatility more accurately reflect the pattern of positional behaviors responsible for the small apes’ successful radiation and subsequent diversification across all of South and Southeast Asia’s forest habitats.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    We follow the taxonomy of Harrison (2013), which separates the superfamily Hominoidea into two extant families, the Hylobatidae (gibbons and siamang) and the Hominidae (great apes and humans). Hominids are further separated into two extant subfamilies, including Ponginae (orangutans) and Homininae (gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans). In this chapter, use of hominid is restricted to nonhuman members of this taxonomic family.

  2. 2.

    Locomotor behaviors included in previous gibbon and siamang positional behavior studies have been limited to the generalized categories of bipedalism, brachiation, climbing, and leaping, whereas postural behaviors were limited to the generalized categories of bipedalism, lie, sit, and suspension.

  3. 3.

    We highlight, in bold text, the positional modes we used that correspond to Hunt et al. (1996) and the minor adjustments to these positional modes utilized in this chapter, so as to differentiate these detailed positional modes from the broad positional modes (i.e., more generalized forms of clambering, climbing, hoisting, and suspension) that are still common in the current literature.

  4. 4.

    In the following discussion we note that in some cases it is not possible to make detailed comparisons across all previously studied taxa, as many early studies of hominoid positional behavior utilized divergent less-detailed behavioral ethograms to that presented here and those in more recent hominoid studies.

  5. 5.

    TO-forelimb-suspend/stand is differentiated from TO-bipedal stand and one of its submodes TO-bipedal stand/forelimb-suspend by a greater emphasis of forelimb suspensory body mass support. This is differentiated in the field by observing the body mass induced deformation of each respective weight bearing substrate (Hunt et al. 1996).

  6. 6.

    We place the words ‘climb’ or ‘climbing’ in brackets to recognize that this often utilized category of locomotion (sensu Fleagle 1976) is now considered to include functionally different locomotor modes (e.g., bridging, torso-orthograde clamber/transfer, torso-orthograde vertical climb, and torso-pronograde clambering/scrambling; Hunt et al. 1996).

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Acknowledgments

We kindly acknowledge the National Park Division of the Royal Forestry Department, Bangkok, and the National Research Council of Thailand , Bangkok for their permission to conduct research at Khao Yai National Park , Thailand. We also thank Chaleam Sagnate, Jacqueline Prime, and Surasack Homros for their assistance while in the field. Lastly, many of the ideas discussed in this chapter are also based on field observations of Sumatran Hylobates agilis and Symphalangus syndactylus that would not have been possible without the assistance of an NSF Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant (BCS 1061477 awarded to MGN).

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  1. Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA

    Matthew G. Nowak

  2. Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme (PanEco Foundation-YEL), Medan, Sumatra, 20154, Indonesia

    Matthew G. Nowak

  3. Department of Anthropology and Center for Ecology, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA

    Ulrich H. Reichard

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anthropology and Center for Ecology, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, Illinois, USA

    Ulrich H. Reichard

  2. Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan

    Hirohisa Hirai

  3. Sezione di Biodiversità Tropicale, MUSE—Museo delle Scienze, Trento, Italy

    Claudia Barelli

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Nowak, M.G., Reichard, U.H. (2016). The Torso-Orthograde Positional Behavior of Wild White-Handed Gibbons (Hylobates lar). In: Reichard, U., Hirai, H., Barelli, C. (eds) Evolution of Gibbons and Siamang. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-5614-2_10

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