Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Strategies I

Integrated Pest Management

  • Chapter
Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis

Abstract

Entomology departments and Washington bureaucracies alike were alive with the hum of ”integrated pest management” (IPM) during the 1970s. Both scientists and government officials saw ways out of the pesticide crisis through this strategy in which chemicals and nonchemical methods of control were used to keep pests below damaging numbers. IPM was not a control technique for insects per se, rather a concept of how insect control should be researched and conducted. Numerous studies were guided by an IPM-like philosophy during the period 1900–1970, but usually they were conducted in isolation from one another. They never constituted a major public policy issue, nor was their underlying conceptual base made explicit. The contemporary IPM concept became a political and intellectual entity through a major research program during the 1970’s, ”The Huf faker Project,” named after its director, Carl Barton Huffaker.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Reference Notes

  1. Carl B. Huffaker, personal interview, Mar. 17–18, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  2. James K. Holloway, “Projects in Biological Control of Weeds,” in Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds, Paul DeBach, ed. (New York: Reinhold Pub. Corp., 1964), pp. 656–658.

    Google Scholar 

  3. C. B. Huffaker and C. E. Kennett, Experimental studies on prédation, Hilgardia 26 (1956): 191–222.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Huffaker, personal interview.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Ray F. Smith, “Development of Integrated Control in California,” 18 pp. plus 7 pp. references, mimeo, 1972

    Google Scholar 

  6. William W. Allen, H. Nakakihara and G. A. Schaefers, The effectiveness of various pesticides against the cyclamen mite on strawberries,J. Econ. Entomol. 50 (1957): 648–652.

    Google Scholar 

  7. C. B. Huffaker, C. E. Kennett, and G. L. Finney, Biological control of the olive scale, Parlatoria oleae (Colvée), in California by imported Aphytis maculicornis (Masi) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), Hilgardia 32 (1962): 541–636

    Google Scholar 

  8. C. B. Huffaker and C. E. Kennett, Biological control of Parlatoria oleae (Colvée) through the compensatory action of two introduced parasites, Hilgardia 37 (1966): 283–335.

    Google Scholar 

  9. A. L. Turnbull and Donald A. Chant argued for introducing only the single best parasite in The practice and theory of biological control of insects in Canada, Can. J. Zool. 39 (1961): 697–753.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Council on Environmental Quality, Scientific review of the Huffaker project for integrated pest management—the principles, strategies, and tactics of pest population regulation in major crop ecosystems, unpublished report, Sept. 15, 1977 (hereafter cited as CEQ, Scientific review).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Curtis P. Clausen, Entomophagous Insects (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1940), 688 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Harry S. Smith, The role of biotic factors in the determination of population densities, J. Econ. Entomol. 28 (1935): 873–898.

    Google Scholar 

  13. C. P. Clausen to K. A. Bartlett, Nov. 22, 1939; C. P. Clausen to P. N. Annand, Nov. 22, 1941; both in Record Group 7, National Archives (RG7NA).

    Google Scholar 

  14. C. F. W. Muesebeck to F. C. Bishopp, July 7, 1952, RG7NA; U. S. Budget, 1939 through 1951 (Washington, D. C: Government Printing Office); Reece I. Sailer, personal interview, May, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Ibid.; R. I. Sailer, ARS agencies involved in Biological Control Research, rough draft, May 24, 1971, copy supplied by R. I. Sailer

    Google Scholar 

  16. K. S. Hagen and J. M. Franz, “A history of biological control,” in History of Entomology, Ray F. Smith, Thomas E. Mittler, and Carroll N. Smith, eds. (Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, Inc., 1973), pp. 433–476 (hereafter cited as Hagen and Franz, History).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Donald Lerch, Search for biological controls poses threat to Nation’s food supply, Agric. Chem. (Nov., 1964): 21–22, 103–104.

    Google Scholar 

  18. The brief recapitulation of the history of biological control given here in no way does justice to the field as a whole. For more complete studies, see Hagen and Franz, History; Richard L. Doutt, “The historical development of biological control,” in Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds, Paul DeBach, ed. (New York: Reinhold Pub. Corp., 1964), pp. 21–42

    Google Scholar 

  19. F. J. Simmonds, J. M. Franz, and R. I. Sailer, “History of biological control,” in Theory and Practice of Biological Control, C. B. Huffaker, ed. (New York: Academic Press, 1976), pp. 17–39.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Paul H. DeBach, personal interview, Mar., 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Paul DeBach, ed., Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds (New York: Reinhold Pub. Corp., 1964), 844 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  22. E. F. Knipling to P. W. Oman, Oct. 31, 1955, files of R. I. Sailer.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Sailer, personal interview. Knipling received support for such a laboratory from the California State Board of Agriculture in 1958 (see Romain Young to Ezra Taft Benson, Mar. 18, 1958 and E. F. Knipling to M. R. Clarkson, Apr. 8, 1958, files of R. I. Sailer).

    Google Scholar 

  24. Sailer, personal interview; R. I. Sailer to B. P. Beirne, Jan. 14, 1964, files of R. I. Sailer. See also the Quarterly Reports, Biological Control of Insects Research Laboratory, USDA, 1965–1972, copies held at USDA Biological Control of Weeds, Albany, Calif.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Hagen and Franz, History.

    Google Scholar 

  26. A. S. Balachowsky, La Commission Internationale de Lutte Biologique contre les Enemis des Cultures (CILB), Entomophaga 1 (1956): 5–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. E. F. Knipling to A. S. Balachowsky, Feb. 20, 1957, files of R. I. Sailer. Knipling promised full cooperation with CILB even though USDA did not join.

    Google Scholar 

  28. International Advisory Committee for Biological Control, Biological Control Information Bulletin No. 1, Oct. 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  29. R. I. Sailer to W. H. Anderson, Sept. 9, 1965, files of R. I. Sauer.

    Google Scholar 

  30. P. DeBach to Members of IUBS Ad Hoc Committee for IOBC, Oct. 15, 1970, files of R. I. Sailer; F. Wilson, Conference Report, International Organization for Biological Control, PANS 16 (1970): 393–395.

    Google Scholar 

  31. By-Laws of the Council of IOBC passed at its meeting, Rome, Apr. 2, 1971, 3 pp., mimeo, files of R. I. Sailer.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Huffaker, personal interview. The U. S. National Committee for the International Biological Program began operations at the National Academy of Sciences in 1965 (U. S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, International Biological Program, Hearings, 91st Congress, 2nd sess., 1970, p. 16).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Paul DeBach and Carl Huffaker, A proposal to establish an International Center of Biological Control at the University of California, unpublished paper, Berkeley and Riverside, California, May, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  34. U. S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, International Biological Program, Hearings, 91st Congress, 2nd sess., 1970, p. 17.

    Google Scholar 

  35. August G. Manza to Program Director, Ecosystem Director, Oct. 29, 1979, files of C. B. Huffaker. The full title of the proposal was “Management of an Integrated, Inter-Institutional Program in Biological Control, as part of the U.S./International Biological Program (IBP).”

    Google Scholar 

  36. Charles F. Cooper to Carl B. Huffaker, Dec. 1, 1969, files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Huffaker, personal interview; Carl B. Huffaker to Charles Cooper, Mar. 20, 1970; Carl B. Huffaker to Frank Blair, Apr. 23, 1970. Letters from the files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Richard G. Wiegert, “Simulation model of ecosystems,” in Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., Richard F. Johnston, Peter W. Frank, and Charles D. Michener, eds., 6 (1975): 311–338

    Google Scholar 

  39. Orie L. Loucks, Emergence of research on agroecosystems, in Ibid., 8 (1977): 173–192 (hereafter cited as Loucks, Emergence).

    Google Scholar 

  40. A pioneering effort was R. W. Stark and Ray F. Smith, “Systems analysis and pest management,” in Biological Control, C. B. Huffaker, ed. (New York: Plenum Press, 1971), pp. 331–345.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Loucks, Emergence.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Major developers of classical biological control, such as Harry Scott Smith, were not opposed to some of the practices of “biological control” in the broad sense of the term. Indeed, Smith and some of his colleagues, especially Stanley E. Flanders, were developers and proponents of mass releases of parasites during the early 1930s. They cautioned, however, that such mass releases had to be based on a sound knowledge of the biology of the host and parasite. Effectiveness was the exception, not the norm, for most release programs. See H. S. Smith and S. E. Flanders, Is Trichogramtna becoming a fad?,J. Econ. Entomol. 24 (1931): 666–672

    Google Scholar 

  43. Paul DeBach and K. S. Hagen, “Manipulations of entomophagous species,” in Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds, Paul DeBach, ed. (New York: Reinhold Pub. Corp., 1964), pp. 429–458.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Huffaker, personal interview; C. B. Huffaker, Status of U.S./IBP project in biological control, unpublished report, July, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Wilbur W. Bolton, Jr. to Loy L. Sammet, June 3, 1970, NSF grant GB-19519, from the files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Huffaker, personal interview; C. B. Huffaker, “Summary of a pest-management conference—a critique,” in Concepts of Pest Management, R. L. Rabb and F. E. Guthrie, eds. (Raleigh: North Carolina State Univ. Press, 1970), pp. 227–242.

    Google Scholar 

  47. A. D. Pickett, W. L. Putnam, and E. J. LeRoux, “Progress in harmonizing biological and chemical control of orchard pests in eastern Canada,” in Proceedings Tenth Inter-national Congress of Entomology, 1956, Vol. 3, (Ottawa? 1958), pp. 169–174.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Ray F. Smith, The origins of integrated control in California: An account of the contributions of Charles W. Woodworth, Pan-Pac. Entomol. 50 (1974): 426–440 (hereafter cited as Smith, Origins)

    Google Scholar 

  49. C. W. Woodworth, The theory of the parasitic control of insect pests, Science 28 (1908): 227–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. C. W. Woodworth, Spray and band treatment for the codling moth, Cal. Agric. Exp. Stn. Rep., 1891, pp. 308–312.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Smith, Origins.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Department of Entomological Sciences, Documentation for Departmental Review, unpublished report, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley, Oct., 1975, p. 5; biographical data on Michelbacher from American Men of Science (New York: Jacques Cattell Press).

    Google Scholar 

  53. A. E. Michelbacher and Ray F. Smith, Some natural factors limiting the abundance of the alfalfa butterfly, Hilgardia 15 (1943): 369–397.

    Google Scholar 

  54. A. E. Michelbacher, The importance of ecology in insect control, J. Econ. Entomol. 38 (1945): 129–130.

    Google Scholar 

  55. A. E. Michelbacher and O. G. Bacon, Walnut insect and spider-mite control in northern California, J. Econ. Entomol. 45 (1952): 1020–1027.I thank K. S. Hagen for bringing this article to my attention.

    Google Scholar 

  56. [K. S. Hagen and R. F. Smith], First annual report of the entomologist for the Westside Alfalfa Pest Control Association, mimeo, Jan., 1947; K. S. Hagen, personal communication, June, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  57. D. E. Bryan and R. F. Smith, First report of the entomologist for the Westley Pest Control Association, mimeo, 1948

    Google Scholar 

  58. R. E. Beer, Ray F. Smith, V. M. Stern, and R. van den Bosch, Second annual report of the entomologists for the Westside Alfalfa Pest Control Association, mimeo, 1948

    Google Scholar 

  59. E. Goldsworthy and Ray F. Smith, First annual report of the entomologist for the Tracy Pest Control Group, mimeo, 1948

    Google Scholar 

  60. V. M. Stern and Ray F. Smith, What has supervised control done for the Westside Alfalfa Pest Control Association? mimeo, 1948

    Google Scholar 

  61. L. A. Bascom and Ray F. Smith, Second annual report of the entomologist for the Westley Pest Control Association, mimeo, 1949.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Ray F. Smith and William W. Allen, Chemical control of the alfalfa caterpillar in California, J. Econ. Entomol. 42 (1949): 487–495.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Ray F. Smith to P. N. Annand, Nov. 25, 1947, RG7NA.

    Google Scholar 

  64. P. N. Annand, Preventive entomology, J. Econ. Entomol. 40 (1947): 461–468.

    Google Scholar 

  65. P. N. Annand to Ray F. Smith, Dec. 5, 1947, RG7NA.

    Google Scholar 

  66. K. S. Hagen, personal communication, June, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  67. R. L. Doutt and Ray F. Smith, “The pesticide syndrome-diagnosis and suggested prophylaxis,” in Biological Control, C. B. Huffaker, ed. (New York: Plenum Press, 1971), pp. 3–15.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Ray F. Smith, John E. Swift, and Jack Dibble, Rapid spread of alfalfa pest, Calif. Agric. 10 (Feb. 1956): 5, 15.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Vernon M. Stern and Robert van den Bosch, Field experiments on the effects of insecticides, Hilgardia 29 (1959): 103–130 (hereafter cited as Stern and van den Bosch, Field experiments).

    Google Scholar 

  70. Ibid.

    Google Scholar 

  71. R. van den Bosch, E. I. Schlinger, E. J. Dietrick, and I. M. Hall, The role of imported parasites in the biological control of the spotted alfalfa aphid in southern California, J. Econ. Entomol. 52 (1959): 142–154

    Google Scholar 

  72. R. van den Bosch, E. I. Schlinger, E. J. Dietrick, K. S. Hagen, and J. K. Holloway, The colonization and establishment of imported parasites of the spotted alfalfa aphid in California, J. Econ. Entomol. 52 (1959): 136–141

    Google Scholar 

  73. K. S. Hagen, G. A. Viktorov, Keizo Yasumatsu, and Michael F. Schuster, “Biological control of pests of range, forage, and grain crops,” in Theory and Practice of Biological Control, C. B. Huffaker, ed. (New York: Academic Press, 1976), pp. 397–442.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Ray F. Smith and Kenneth S. Hagen, Impact of commercial insecticide treatments, Hilgardia 29 (1959): 131–154.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Stern and van den Bosch, Field experiments.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Vernon M. Stern, Ray F. Smith, Robert van den Bosch, and Kenneth S. Hagen, The integrated control concept, Hilgardia 29 (1959): 81–101. The companion papers are those noted in 58 and 60.

    Google Scholar 

  77. R. F. Smith and H. T. Reynolds, “Principles, definitions, and scope of integrated pest control,” in Proceedings of the FAO Symposium on Integrated Control (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1966), pp. 11–17.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Ibid., p. 15.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Ray F. Smith, Proposed intersociety consortium for plant protection, Bull. Entomol. Soc. Am. 22 (1976): 37.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Perry Lee Adkisson, personal interview, May 30–31, 1978. A review of pink bollworm problems in Texas can be found in Perry L. Adkisson and J. C. Gaines, Pink bollworm control as related to the total cotton insect control program of central Texas, Tex. Agric. Exp. Stn. MP-444, July 1960, 8 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Floyd Miner, Dwight Isely, 1887–1974, J. Econ. Entomol. 69 (1976): 298–299.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Charles Gatewood Lincoln, personal interview, June 6–7, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Dwight Isely and W. J. Baerg, The boll weevil problem in Arkansas, Ark. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 190, Jan. 1924, 29 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Dwight Isely, Control of the boll weevil and the cotton aphid in Arkansas, Ark. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 496, June, 1950.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Charles Lincoln, W. P. Boyer, and Floyd D. Miner, The evolution of insect pest management in cotton and soybeans: Past experience, present status, and future outlook in Arkansas, Environ. Entomol. 4 (1975): 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Leo Dale Newsom, personal interview, June 1–2, 1978; Lincoln, personal interview.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Lincoln, personal interview.

    Google Scholar 

  88. C. B. Huffaker to R. L. Doutt, R. F. Smith, C. S. Koehler, W. W. Allen, K. S. Hagen, P. S. Messenger, R. van den Bosch, Y. Tanada, D. Jensen, L. A. Falcon, W. C. Batiste, L. E. Caltagirone, D. Price, D. Wood, R. W. Stark, and D. L. Dahlsten, May 27, 1970, files of C. B. Huffaker (hereafter cited as C. B. Huffaker to Doutt et al.).

    Google Scholar 

  89. President’s Science Advisory Committee, Cotton Insects (Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1965), 19 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Adkisson, personal interview.

    Google Scholar 

  91. C. B. Huffaker to Doutt et al.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Newsom, personal interview; idem, An assessment of the potential for control of soybean insect pests with minimum use of conventional insecticides, unpublished paper delivered to the Organizing Work Conference for Proposal on The Principles of Pest Population Regulation and Control for Major Crop Ecosystems, Berkeley, Calif., Oct. 19–20, 1970, files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  93. P. L. Adkisson to Carl B. Huffaker, Oct. 20, 1971, files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Carl B. Huffaker to Charles Cooper, Dec. 16, 1970, files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  95. August G. Manza to National Science Foundation, Nov. 1, 1971, files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  96. C. B. Huffaker and R. F. Smith, Application to National Science Foundation, The Principles, Strategies and Tactics of Pest Population Regulation and Control in Major Crop Ecosystems, Umbrella to the Proposal, unpublished grant proposal [Aug. 1971], pp. 33, 45–47, files of C. B. Huffaker. See also C. B. Huffaker and Ray F. Smith, “The IBP program on the strategies and tactics of pest management,” in Proceedings, Tall Timbers Conference on Ecological Animal Control by Habitat Management, No. 4, Feb. 24–25, 1972, pp. 219–236; C. B. Huffaker, personal communication, May, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  97. C. B. Huffaker and R. F. Smith, Management, coordination and special servicing of application, 9 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Perry Adkisson delivered a complete copy of the proposal to Knipling on Sept. 23 in Lubbock, Texas. He reported Knipling to be unenthusiastic about funding for NSF before funding to USDA for pilot tests (P. L. Adkisson to Carl Huffaker, Oct. 5, 1971, files of C. B. Huffaker). Adkisson was probably referring to Knipling’s interest in the Pilot Boll Weevil Eradication Experiment, which had begun in August and was underfunded. Knipling’s work is covered in detail in Chapter 6.

    Google Scholar 

  99. U. S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, Pest Control Research, Hearings, 92nd Congress, 1st sess., 1971, pp. 13–14 (hereafter cited as U.S. Congress, Senate, Pest Control Research). It is likely the agreement was forged in anticipation of Huffaker’s proposal.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Environmental Protection Agency, Cancellation of registration under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of products containing DDT, PR71–1, Jan. 15, 1971; copy attached to Edmund M. Sweeney, Consolidated DDT Hearing (Washington, D.C: EPA, 1972), mimeo, 439 F 2d 584 (1971) (hereafter cited as Sweeney, Consolidated DDT hearing). Cancellations were also made of products containing TDE (Md., PR71–3 and PR71–5).

    Google Scholar 

  101. DDT Advisory Committee, Report (Washington, D.C.: EPA, Sept. 9, 1971), 58 pp. The Report argued that “rapid and continuous decrease in the use of DDT” would accomplish the same purpose as “immediate suspension” (p. 43). The latter was the EPA’s legal tool for immediately prohibiting sales of DDT in the market place. Even though the committee was clearly in favor of reducing all significant additions of DDT to the environment, they shied from explicitly recommending “immediate suspension.” Their reasons for avoiding the legal term are not clear, but their reluctance to use it may have contributed to the EPA’s decision not to suspend DDT in the fall of 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Sweeney, Consolidated DDT hearing.

    Google Scholar 

  103. U. S. Congress, House, Committee on Agriculture, Federal Pesticide Control Act of 1971, Hearings, 92nd Congress, 1st sess., 1971 pp. 3–8, statement of John Quarles, Environmental Protection Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Carl B. Huffaker to Drs. Adkisson, Armbrust, Caltagirone, DeBach, Newsom, Stark, Smith, May 17, 1971, with attachment [Gaylord Nelson], S. 1794, To provide a viable alternative to the Nation’s rigid reliance on pesticides, 8 pp., files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Ibid.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Lincoln, personal interview.

    Google Scholar 

  107. U. S. Congress, Senate, Pest Control Research, pp. 1–174.

    Google Scholar 

  108. James R. Brazzel, personal interview, May 26–27, 1978; J. R. Brazzel to D. R. Shepherd, July 21, 1970; and Ned D. Bayley, Parathion Safety Program, Pesticide Use Management, and Related Matters, unpublished paper, Nov. 30, 1970, files of J. R. Brazzel.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Carl B. Huffaker to Ned Bayley, Sept. 14, 1971; C. B. Huffaker to Steering Committee, IBP/NSF Proposals, Oct. 14, 1971; files of C. B. Huffaker; Huffaker, personal interview.

    Google Scholar 

  110. H. T. Reynolds to Carl B. Huffaker, Oct. 22, 1971; P. L. Adkisson to Carl B. Huffaker, Oct. 20, 1971; files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  111. H. T. Reynolds to C. B. Huffaker, Oct. 22, 1971; Robert L. Rabb to C. B. Huffaker, Oct. 21, 1971; and T. W. Fisher to C. B. Huffaker, Nov. 9, 1971; files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  112. C. B. Huffaker to Steering Committee, IBP/NSF Proposals, Oct. 14, 1971, files of C. B. Huffaker.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Huffaker, personal interview.

    Google Scholar 

  114. Donald B. Rice to William D. McElroy, Dec. 30, 1971 and Donald B. Rice to Earl L. Butz, Dec. 30, 1971, both in files of J. T. Callahan, NSF. Quote is from latter letter.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Huffaker, personal communication, July, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  116. CEQ, Scientific review, p. 48.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Evergreen State College, Olympia, Washington, USA

    John H. Perkins

Authors
  1. John H. Perkins
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1982 Plenum Press, New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Perkins, J.H. (1982). Strategies I. In: Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-3998-4_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-3998-4_3

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-4000-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-3998-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation