Abstract
Many vertebrates use noxious or deterrent chemicals as defense against predators, parasites, and/or microbes. Putatively adaptive chemical defenses have been described for fish, salamanders, frogs, toads, snakes, lizards, and even mammals. For some of these groups, e.g., frogs and toads, chemical defense may be the primary means of protection from predation. In contrast, no birds are listed in recent indices of chemically-defended animals (see Species Index, Toxicon Vol. 1–27, 1990), and birds have generally been thought not to use chemical defense.
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Dumbacher, J.P., Pruett-Jones, S. (1996). Avian Chemical Defense. In: Nolan, V., Ketterson, E.D. (eds) Current Ornithology. Current Ornithology, vol 13. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5881-1_4
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