Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Safety of food colorants

  • Chapter
Natural Food Colorants

Abstract

Safety of food colorants has been a very controversial topic in recent decades but nearly all of the criticism has been directed towards the synthetic colorants. The natural colorants have been singularly free of criticism possibly due to the belief that most are derived from well known food sources that have been consumed for many years. This concept is reinforced by the belief that Man has somehow become conditioned to tolerate certain compounds after a long history of use. This belief is certainly naive because 5000 years is too short a time to create significant genetic changes. It is true, however, that history has allowed us to identify acute hazards and subsequently eliminate them from the diet. However, long-term or even lifetime exposures are another story. Regardless, natural colorants have a good history of safety.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Francis, F.J. Food Safety: The Interpretation of Risk. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa (1992) 21 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Anon, A Proposed Food Safety Evaluation Process. Food Safety Council (1982) p. 142,

    Google Scholar 

  3. Boyd, E.M. Toxicity of Pure Foods. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Rodricks, J.V. Calculated Risks. The Toxicity and Human Health Risks of Chemicals in Our Environment. Cambridge University Press (1992).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Parker, L.E. Chapter 1 in Developments in Food Colours–2. Applied Science, London (1984) 1.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Hallagan, J.B., Allen, D.C. and Borzellaca, J.F. Food Chem. Toxicol. (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Anon, Food Chem. News 35 (1994) 28.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Dartiques, J.F., Dabis, F., Gros, A., Moise, G., Bois, R., Salamon, J.M., Dilhuydy, M. and Courty, G. European J. Epidem. 6 (1990) 261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Heinonon, O.P. and Albanes, D. New England J. Med. 330 (1994) 1080.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Hennekins, C.H., Buring, J.E. and Peto, R. New England J. Med. 330 (1994) 1080.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Abbey, M., Nestel, P.J. and Baghurst, P.A. Amer. J. Clin. Nut. 58 (1993) 525.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Morris, D.L., Kritchevsky, S.B. and Davis, C.E. J. Amer. Med. Ass. 272 (1994) 1439.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Franceschi, S., Bidoli, E., Vechia, C.L., Talamini, R., D’Avanzo, B. and Negri, E. Internat. J. Cancer 59 (1994) 181.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Dipaolo, J.A. and Castro, B.C. Cancer Res. 39 (1979) 1008.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Seddon, J.M., Agani, U.A. and Sperduto, R.D. J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 272 (1994) 1413.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Meyers, S.P. Proc. First Intern. Symp. on Natural Colorants, Amherst, MA (1993).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Cody, V., Middleton, E. and Harborne, J.B. Plant Flavonoids in Biology and Medicine Publ. Alan R. Liss, New York (1986) 581 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Hertog, M.G.L., Feskins, E.J.M., Hollman, P.C.H., Katan, M.B. and Kronhaut, D. Lancet 342 (1993) 1007.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Vinson, J.A., Courey, J.M. and Maro, N.P. Nutrition Res. 12 (1992) 915.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Brown, J.P. and Brown, R.J. Mutation Research 66 (1979) 223.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Minati, E. and Cole, R. Proc. First Intern. Symp. on Natural Colorants, Amherst, MA (1993).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Ravindranath, V. and Chandrasekara, N. Toxicology 16 (1981) 259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Haveland-Smith, R.B. Mutation Research 91 (1981) 285.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Huang, M.T., Smart, R.C., Wong, C.Q. and Conney, A.H. Cancer Res. 48 (1988) 5941.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Ivett, J.L., Brown, B.M., Rodgers, C., Anderson, B.E., Resnick, M.A. and Zeiger, E. Molecular Mutagenesis 14 (1989) 165.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Kuttan, R., Bhanumathy, P., Nimala, K. and George, M.C. Cancer Letters 29 (1985) 197.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Nagabhushan, M. and Bhide, S.V. Food Chem. Toxicol. 22 (1987) 545.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Sondamini, K.K. and Kuttan, R. J. Ethnopharmacol. 27 (1989) 227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Truhaut, R. Proc. Intern. Federation Pharm. (1978) 8.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Harborne, J.B. The Flavonoids. Advances in Research since 1980. Chapman & Hall (1988) 621 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Brown, J.P. and Dietrich, P.S. Mutation Research 66 (1979) 223.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. MacGregor, J.T. and Jurd, L. Mutation Res. 54 (1978) 297.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Viola, M. and Nosotti, A. Bolletino Chimico-Farmaceutico 117 (1978) 402.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Chamorro, G., Salazar, M., Pages, N. and Dedict-Cofoa, B. de. Belgian J. Food Chem. and Biotech. 42 (1987) 188.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Pourrat, H., Bastide, P., Dorier, P., Pourrat, M.A. and Tranche, P. Chimie Therapeutique 2 (1967) 33.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Becci, P.J., Hess, F.G., Gallo, M.A., Johnson, W.D. and Babish, J.G. Food Chem. Toxicol. 21 (1983) 75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Becci, P.J., Hess, F.G., Babish, J.G., Gallo, M.A. and Voss, K.A. Food Chem. Toxicol. 21 (1983) 79.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Bagdon, R.E., Zbinden, G. and Studer, A. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2 (1960) 225.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Zbinden, G. and Studer, A. Zeits. für Lebens. und Forschung 108 (1958) 113.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Coulson, J. Chap. 7 in Developments in Food Colours – 1 (J. Walford, ed.), Applied Science, London (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Comforti-Froes, N., Varella-Garcia, M. and Silva, A.A. Alimentos e Nutricão 4 (1992) 33.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Cooper, R.M. Food and Drug Law. Food and Drug Law Inst., Washington D.C. (1991) 482.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Heywood, R., Palmer, A.K., Gregson, R.L. and Himmler, H. Toxicology 36 (1985) 91.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Huang, H.S. and Goodman, D.S. J. Biol. Chem. 240 (1965) 2839.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Krause, R.F. and Sanders, P.L. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. & Med. 95 (1957) 549.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Thomsen, K., Schmidt, H. and Fischer, A. Dermatologica 159 (1979) 82.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Hoffman-La Roche. Canthaxanthin. Unpublished report submitted to WHO. Cited in JECFA 31st Report 1988 and 35th Report 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Schwartz, J. and Shklar, G. Nutrition Cancer 11 (1988) 35.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Weber, U., Goerz, G., Kern, W. and Michaelis, L. Concepts in Toxicol. 4 (1987) 105.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Bluhm, R., Branch, R., Johnston, P. and Stein, R. J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 264 (1990) 1141.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Herbert, V. Amer. J. Clin. Nut. 53 (1991) 573.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Bagdon, R.E., Impellizzeri, C. and Osadca, M. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 4 (1962) 444.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Nir, Z., Hartel, D. and Raveh, Y. Proc. First Inter. Symp. on Natural Colorants, Amherst, MA (1993).

    Google Scholar 

  54. Ishidate, M., Sofuni, K., Yoshiyawa, K., Hayashi, M., Nohmi, M. and Matsuoka, A. Food Chem. Toxicol. 22 (1984) 263.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Murthy, M.S., Mutation Res. 64 (1979) 1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. van Esch, G.J., van Genderen, H. and Vink, H.H. Zeits. Leben. Unter. Forsch. 111 (1959) 93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Englebreth-Holm, J. and Iverson, S. Acta Path. et Microbiol. Scandinavia 37 (1955) 483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Goodpasture, C.E. and Arrighi, F.E. Food and Cosmetic Toxicol. 14 (1987) 9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Ueno, S., Ayamoda, N., Kubota, K., Kurosawa, K. and Ishizaki, M. J. Jap. Soc. Food Sci. & Technol. 30 (1983) 172.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Grant, D. and Gaunt, I.F. Food Chem. Toxicol. 25 (1987) 903.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Noda, T., Shimiez, M., Yamada, A., Morta, S. and Ishibashi, T. Seikatsu Eisei 28 (1984) 80.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. World Health Organization. Food Additive Series, No. 32 (1993).

    Google Scholar 

  63. Jensen, C.O., Howes, T.W., Spiller, G.A., Pattison, T.S., Whittam, J.H. and Scala, J. Nutr. Rep. Int. 35 (1987) 413.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Perotti, A.G. Industrie Alimentari 14 (1975) 66.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Bhavanishanker, T.N., Murthy, K.N. and Murthy, K.S. J. Food Sci. & Technol. 23 (1986) 287.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Abraham, S.K. and Kesavan, P.C. Mutation Research 53 (1978) 142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Abraham, S.K. and Kesavan, P.C. Mutation Research 136 (1984) 85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Abraham, S.K. and Kesavan, P.C. Mutation Research 143 (1985) 219.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Giri, A.K., Das, S.K., Taiukder, G. and Sharma, A. Cytobios 62 (1990) 111.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Hachiya, N. Akita J. Medicine 14 (1987) 269.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Ishidata, M., Sofuni, K. Yoshikawa, K., Hayashi, M., Nohmi, M. and Matsuoka, A. Food Chem. Toxicol. 22 (1984) 623.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Jensen, N.J. Mutation Res. 105 (1982) 393.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Kawachi, T., Komatsu, T., Kada, T., Ishidate, M., Sasaki, M., Sugiyama, T. and Tazima, Y. Applied Methods in Oncology 3 (1980) 252.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Luck, H. and Rickeri, E. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 759.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Mortelmans, K., Haworth, S., Lawlor, T., Speck, W., Tainor, B. and Zeiger, E. Environ. Mutag. 8 (1986) 1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Sankaranarayanan, N. and Murthy, M.S. Mutation Res. 67 (1979) 309.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Seetharamaiah, G.S. and Chandrasahhara, N. J. Food Sci. & Technol. India 30 (1983) 249.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Tazima, Y. Appl. Methods in Oncology 3 (1980) 252.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Vijalaxmi, V.Y. Mutation Res. 12 (1992) 915.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Polasa, K., Sesikaren, B., Krishna, T.P. and Krishnaswamy, K. Food Chem. Toxicol. 29 (1991) 699.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Egg Mason Research Inst. Report No. MRI-NPT 11-83-22. (1983).

    Google Scholar 

  82. Srimal, R.C. and Dhawan, B.N. J. Pharmacy and Pharmacol. 25 (1973) 447.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. NTP Tech. Report No. 427 (1993).

    Google Scholar 

  84. WHO. Unpublished report from the Central Food Technology Research Inst. India. Submitted by Chr. Hansen’s Lab. (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  85. Brown, J.P. Mutation Research 75 (1980) 243.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Haveland-Smith, R.B. and Coombes, R.D. Food and Cosmet. Toxicol. 18 (1980) 215.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Ishidate, M. and Yoshikawa, K. Arch. Toxicol. Suppl. 4 (1980) 41.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Kada, T., Tutikawa, K. and Sadiae, Y. Mutation Res. 16 (1972) 165.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Kornbrust, D. and Barfknecht, T. Envir. Mutag. 7 (1985) 101.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Loprieno, G., Boncristieni, G. and Loprieno, N. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 759.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Mori, H., Iwata, H., Tonaka, T., Morichita, Y., Mori, Y., Koyama, T. and Okumura, A. Food Chem. Toxicol. 29 (1988) 585.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Sasaki, M., Sugimura, K., Yoshida, M. and Abe, S. Senshokutai 20 (1980) 574.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Ford, G.P., Gopel, T., Grant, D., Gaunt, I.F., Evans, G.J. and Butler, W.H. Food Chem. Toxicol. 25 (1987) 897.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Battelle. Unpubl. report from the Battelle Memorial Inst. submitted to WHO.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Grant, D., Gaunt, I.F. and Carpenini, F.M.B. Food Chem. Toxicol. 25 (1987) 913.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Shulter, G. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Arch. Pharmacol. 270 (1971) 316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Chakravarti, I. Int. Cong. Food Sci. & Technol. Abs. (1978) 290.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Chakravarti, I., Sreeder, R. and Roy, B.R. Indian J. Nut. & Dietetics 17 (1980) 377.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Ghosh, A. and Chakravarti, I. Indian J. Nut. & Dietet. 19 (1982) 310.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Ghosh, A. and Chakravarti, I. Indian J. Nut. & Dietet. 22 (1985) 147.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Ghosh, A. and Chakravarti, I. J. Food Sci. & Technol India 25 (1988) 94.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Banerjee, T.S., Bhawmik, G., Yu, C.L., Swminathan, B., Giri, A.K., Shrivastava, S. and Bhattachargee, S.B. Food Chem. Toxicol. 22 (1984) 677.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Chappel, C.I. and Howell, J.C. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 351.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Licht, B.H., Shaw, K., Smith, C., Mendoza, M., Orra, J. and Myers, D.V. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 565.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Myers, D.V. and Howell, J.C. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 359.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Licht, B.H., Shaw, K., Smith, C., Mendoza, M., Orr, J. and Myers, D.V. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 375.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Houben, G.F., Abma, P.M.H., Berg, H. vanden, Dokkum, W. van, Loveran, H. van, Pennicks, A.H., Seinen, W., Spanhack, S., Vos, J.G. and Ockhuizen, T. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 749.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Adams, K., Allen, J.K., Brookes, P.C., Jones, E. and Proudlock, R.J. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 397.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Allen, J.A., Brookes, P.C., Jones, E., Adams, K. and Reichold, M. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 389.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Brusik, D.J., Jaganath, D.R., Galloway, S.M. and Nestman, E.R. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  111. MacKenzie, K.M., Carter, J.L., Petsell, S.R.W., Chappel, C.I., Emerson, J.L. and Stanley, J. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 411.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. MacKenzie, K.M., Boysen, B.G., Field, W.E., Petsell, S.R.W., Chapell, C.I., Emerson, J.L. and Stanley, J. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 417.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. McKenzie, K.M., Boysen, B.G., Field, W.E., Petsell, S.R.W., Chappell, C.I., Emerson, J.L. and Stanley, J. Food Chem. Toxicol. 30 (1992) 431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Hong-Sik, C. and Chang-Long, L. J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. and Nut. 22 (1993) 246.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Kim, H.S., Chang, U., Son, C.H., Bae, J.C. and Yu, J.K. Korean J. App. Micro. & Engin. 9 (1981) 117.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Jahn, A. Mitt. der Bund. für Fleisch, Kulmbach 114 (1991) 379.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Fink-Gummels, J. and Leistner, L. Fleischwirtschaft 69 (1989) 115.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Youngsmith, B. and Tabloka, W. Kasetsart J. 19 (1985) 45.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Yammono, T., Tsugimoto, Y., Noda, T., Shimizu, M., Ohmori, M., Morta, S. and Yamada, S. Food Chem. Toxicol. 28 (1990) 515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Yoshizumi, S., Okuyoma, H. and Toyoma, R. Shouhuhin Kogyo 23 (1980) 41.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Schwartz, S.J., Elbe, J.H., von Pariza, M.W., Goldsworthy, T. and Pitat, H.C. Food Chem. Toxicol. 21 (1983) 531.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Tarka, S.M. CRC Critical Reviews in Toxicology 9 (1982) 275.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Huschke, G. Chap. 8 in Natural Colours For Food and Other Uses. Edit. J.N. Counsel. Applied Science, London (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  124. Dunkel, V.C., Zeiger, E., Brusick, D., McCoy, E., McGregor, D., Mortelmans, K., Rosenkrantz, H.S. and Simmon, V.F. Environ. Mutag. 7 (1985) 1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Kanetmatsu, N., Hara, M. and Kada, T. Mutation Res. 11 (1980) 109.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Mikalsen, S.O., Rivadel, E. and Sanner, T. Carcinogenesis 9 (1988) 891.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Poole, A., Brown, R.C. and Rood, A.P. Brit. J. Exper. Path. 67 (1986) 289.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Tennant, R.W., Margolin, B.H., Shelby, M.D., Zeiger, E., Haseman, J.K., Spalding, J., Caspary, W., Resnick, M., Staciewicz, S., Anderson, B. and Minor, R. Science 236 (1987) 933.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Zeiger, E., Anderson, B., Haworth, S., Lawior, T. and Mortelmans, K. Envir. and Molecular Mutag. 11 (1988) 1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Trochinowitz, H.J. J. Appl. Toxicol. 8 (1988) 383.

    Google Scholar 

  131. Roy, D. and Saha, J. The Eastern Pharmacist 24 (1981) 125.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Lehman, K.B. and Herget, L. Chemiker-Zeitung 51 (1927) 793.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. National Cancer Inst. Tech. Report No. 97 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  134. Heaton, N. The Chemical Trade J. and Chem. Engineer 85 (1929) 439.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Lloyd, L.E., Rutherford, B.E. and Crampton, E.W. J. Nut. 56 (1955) 265.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Fournier, P. C.R. Acad. Science (Paris) 231 (1950) 1343.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. F. J. Francis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. NERC Unit of Comparative Plant Ecology, University of Sheffield, UK

    G. A. F. Hendry (Honorary Senior Lecturer) (Honorary Senior Lecturer)

  2. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, UK

    J. D. Houghton (Lecturer) (Lecturer)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1996 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Francis, F.J. (1996). Safety of food colorants. In: Hendry, G.A.F., Houghton, J.D. (eds) Natural Food Colorants. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2155-6_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2155-6_4

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-5900-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-2155-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation