Skip to main content

Immunological and Formulation Design Considerations for Subunit Vaccines

  • Chapter
Vaccine Design

Part of the book series: Pharmaceutical Biotechnology ((PBIO,volume 6))

Abstract

Vaccination represents the most successful attempt yet to protect humans and domestic animals from infectious diseases. Most vaccines operate by limiting infections, not necessarily by preventing them; it is the host immune system that mediates control and ultimate clearance of the infectious agent. Many of the most widely used vaccines developed for use in humans are based on live replicating organisms that have been attenuated. Vaccination with these agents results in a limited infection, but measurable disease pathogenesis is usually avoided and recovery is complete. The resultant immune responses are protective against the fully virulent pathogens and long-term immunological memory is induced. Today, attenuated vaccines are still used and efforts to develop the next generation are active.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Acres, R. B., Hareuveni, M, Balloul, J.-M., and Kieny, M.-P., 1993, Vaccinia virus MUC1 immunization of mice: Immune response and protection against the growth of murine tumors bearing the MUC1 antigen, J. Immunother. 14:136–143.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alfonso, L. C. C., Sharton, T. M., Vierira, L. Q., Wysocka, M., Thinchieri, G., and Scott, P., 1994, The adjuvant effect of interleukin-12 in a vaccine against Leishmania major, Science 263:235–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alving, C. R., Richards, R. L., and Moss, J., 1986, Effectiveness of liposomes as potential carriers of vaccines: Applications to cholera toxin and human malarial sporozoite antigen, Vaccine 4:166–172.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alwan, W. H., Record, F. M., and Openshaw, P.J. M., 1993, Phenotypic and functional characterization of T cell Unes specific for individual respiratory syncytial virus proteins, J. Immunol. 150:5211–5218.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, K. P., Lucas, C., Hanson, C. V., Londe, H. F., Izu, A., Gregory, T., Ammann, A., Berman, P. W., and Eichberg, J. W., 1989, Effect of dose and immunization schedule on immune response of baboons to recombinant glycoprotein 120 of HIV-1, J. Infect. Dis. 160:960–969.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, M. S., and Miler, J., 1992, Invariant chain can function as a chaperon protein for class II major histocompatibility complex molecules, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:2282–2286.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P., 1983, Antibody responses to H. influenzae type b and diphtheria toxin induced by conjugates of Oligosaccharides of the type b capsule with the nontoxic protein CRM197, Infect. Immun. 39:233–238.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P., and Heron, I., 1993, Specificity of a protective immune response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Infect. Immun. 61:844–851.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P., Pichichero, M. E., and Insel, R. A., 1985, Immunization of 2-month-old infants with protein-coupled Oligosaccharides derived from capsule of H. influenzae type b, J. Pediatr. 107:346–351.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P., Askgaard, D., Ljungqvist, L., Bentzon, M. W., and Heron, I., 1991, T-cell proliferative response to antigens secreted from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Infect. Immun. 59:1558–1563.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P., Askgaard, D., Gottschau, A., Bennedsen, J., Nagai, S., and Heron, I., 1992, Identification of immunodominant antigens during infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Scand. J. Immunol. 36:823–831.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andrade, J. D., Hlady, V., Wei, A.-P., Ho, C.-H., Lea, A. S., Jeon, S. I., Lin, Y. S., and Stroup, E., 1992, Proteins at interfaces: Principles, multivariate aspects, protein resistant surfaces, and direct imaging and manipulation of adsorbed proteins, Clin. Mater. 11:67–70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aprile, M. A., and Wardlaw, A. C., 1966, Aluminum compounds as adjuvants for vaccines and toxoids in man: A review, Can. J. Public Health 57:343–360.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barnd, D. L., Lan, M. S., Metzgar, R. S., and Finn, O. J., 1989, Specific, major histocompatibility complex-unrestricted recognition of tumor-associated mucins by human cytotoxic T cells, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:7159–7164.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, P. F., Abrams, J. S., Lu, S. Z., Sieling, P. A., Rea, T. H., and Modlin, R. L., 1993, Patterns of cytokine production by mycobacterium-reactive human T-cell clones, Infect. Immun. 61:197–203.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Belshe, R. B., Clements, M. L., Dolin, R., Graham, B. S., McElrath, J., Gorse, G. J., Schwartz, D., Keefer, M. C., Wright, P., Corey, L., Bolognesi, D. M., Matthews, T. J., Stablein, D. M., O’Brien, F. S., Eibl, M., Dorner, F., Koff, W., and the NIH NIAID AIDS VEG., 1993, Safety and immunogenicity of a fully glycosylated recombinant gp160 human immunodeficiency virus type 1 vaccine in subjects at low risk of infection, J. Infect. Dis. 168:1387–1395.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, B., Check, I. J., Olsen, M. R., and Hunter, R. L., 1992, A comparison of commercially available adjuvants for use in research, J. Immunol. Methods 153:31–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, K., Levine, T., Ellis, J. S., Peanasky, R. J., Samloff, I. M., Kay, J., and Chain, B. M., 1992, Antigen processing for presentation by class II major histocompatibility complex requires cleavage by cathepsin E, Eur. J. Immunol. 22:1519–1524.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berek, C., Berger, A., and Apel, M., 1991, Maturation of the immune response in germinal centers, Cell 67:1121–1129.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berman, P. W., Gregory, T. J., Riddle, L., Nakamura, G. R., Champe, M. A., Porter, J. P., Wurm, F. M., Hershberg, R. D., Cobb, E. K., and Eichberg, J. W., 1990, Protection of chimpanzees from infection by HIV-1 after vaccination with recombinant gp120 but not gp160, Nature 345:622–625.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berman, P. W, Matthews, T., Eastman, D., Nakamura, G., Murthy, K., and Schwartz, D., 1993, Comparison of the immune response to recombinant gp120 in man and chimpanzees, IX International Conference on AIDS, Berlin, Germany, Abstract PO-B27-2135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beverly, P. C. L., 1990, Is T cell memory maintained by cross-reactive stimulation? Immunol. Today 11:203–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beverly, P. C. L., 1992, Functional analysis of human T cell subsets defined by CD45 isoform expression, Semin. Immunol. 4:35–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boon, W. H., Liano, D., and Abbas, A. K., 1988, Heterogeneity of helper/inducer T lymphocytes. II. Effects of interleukin 4-and interleukin 2-producing T cell clones on resting B lymphocytes, J. Exp. Med. 167:1352–1363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boon, W. H., Wallis, R. S., and Chervenak, K. A., 1991, Human mycobacterium tuberculosis-reactive CD4+ T-cell clones: Heterogeneity in antigen recognition. Cytokine production and cytotoxicity for mononuclear phagocytes, Infect. Immun. 59:2737–2743.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braciale, T. J., Morrison, L. A., Sweetser, M. T., Sambrook, J., Gething, M.-J., and Braciale, V. L., 1987, Antigen presentation pathways to class I and class II MHC-restricted T lymphocytes, Immunol. Rev. 98:95–114.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, L. M., Duncan, D. D., Tonkonogy, S., and Swain, S. L., 1991, Characterization of antigen-specific CD4+ effector T cells in vivo: Immunization results in a transient population of Mel-14− CD45RB− helper cells that secrete interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-3, IL-4 and interferon-γ, J. Exp. Med. 174:547–559.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brewster, M. E., Hora, M. S., Simpkins, J. W., and Bodor, N., 1991, Use of 2-hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin as a solubilizing and stabilizing excipient for protein drugs, Pharm. Res. 8:792–795.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, F., Dougan, G., Hoey, E. M., Martin, S. J., Rima, B. K., and Trudgen, A., 1993, Vaccine Design, Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M. G., Driscoll, J., and Monaco, J. J., 1991, Structural and serological similarity of MHC-linked LMP and proteosome (multicatalytic proteinase) complexes, Nature 353:335–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruguera, M., Cremades, M., Salinas, R., Costa, J., Grau, M., and Sans, J., 1992, Impaired response to recombinant hepatitis B vaccine in HIV-infected persons, J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 14:27–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bu, D., Domenech, N., Lewis, J., Taylor-Papadimitriou, J., and Finn, O. J., 1993, Recombinant vaccinia mucin vector: In vitro analysis of expression of tumor-associated epitopes for antibody and human cytotoxic T-cell recognition, J. Immunother. 14:127–135.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Butterfield, K., Fathman, C. G., and Budd, R. C., 1989, A subset of memory CD4+ helper T-lymphocytes identified by expression of Pgp-1, J. Immunol. 169:1461–1466.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bystryn, J.-C., Ferrone, S., and Livingston, P., (eds.), 1993, Specific Immunotherapy of Cancer with Vaccines, Vol. 690, New York Academy of Sciences, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cabasso, V. J., Louie, B. L., and Dobkin, M. B., 1978, Antibody levels following W138 rabies vaccine, Dev. Biol. Stand. 40:231–235.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Callahan, P. M., Shorter, A. L., and Hem, S. L., 1991, The importance of surface charge in the optimization of antigen-adjuvant interactions, Pharm. Res. 8:851–858.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, J. F., Arakawa, T., and Crowe, J. H., 1990, Interactions of stabilizing additives with proteins during freeze-thawing and freeze-drying, Dev. Biol. Stand. 74:225–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheever, M. A., Chen, W., Nelson, H., Greenberg, P. D., Lee, V. K., Crossland, K. D., and Peace, D. J., 1990, T cell immunity to the oncogenic form of ras protein can be induced by immunization with synthetic peptides, in: Cellular Immunity and Immunotherapy of Cancer (M. T. Lotze and O. J. Finn, eds.), Wiley-Liss, New York, pp. 295–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, T., 1992, Formulation concerns of protein drugs, Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 18:1311–1354.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cher, D. J., and Mosmann, T. R., 1987, Two types of murine helper cell clones: 2. Delayed-type hypersensitivity is mediated by TH1 clones, J. Immunol. 138:3688–3694.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cleland, J. L., Powell, M. F., and Shire, S., 1993, The development of stable protein formulations: A close look at protein aggregation, deamidation and oxidation, Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Syst. 10:307–377.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cleland, J. L., Powell, M. F., Lim, A., Barrón, L., Berman, P. W., Eastman, D. J., Nunberg, J. H., Wrin, T., and Vennari, J. C., 1994, Development of a single shot subunit vaccine for HIV-1, AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 10:521–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clerici, M., and Shearer, G. M., 1993, A TH1-TH2 switch is a critical step in the etiology of HIV infection, Immunol. Today 14:107–111.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coffman, R. L., Seymour, B. W., Lebman, D. A., Hiraki, D. D., Christiansen, J. A., Shrader, B., Cherwinski, H. M., Savelkoul, H. F. J., Finkelman, F. D., Bond, M. W., and Mosmann, T. R., 1988, The role of helper T cell products in mouse B cell differentiation and isotype regulation, Immunol. Rev. 102:5–28.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Bernstein, H., Hewes, C., Chow, M., and Langer, R., 1991, The pharmacokinetics of, and humoral responses to, antigen delivered by microencapsulated liposomes, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:10440–10444.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Colditz, G. A., Brewer, T. F., Berkey, C. S., Wilson, M. E., Burdick, E., Fineberg, H. V., and Mosteller, F., 1994, Efficacy of BCG vaccine in the prevention of tuberculosis: Meta-analysis of the published literature, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 271:698–702.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, D. S., Unanue, E. R., and Harding, C. V., 1991, Reduction of disulfide bonds within lysosomes is a key step in antigen processing, J. Immunol. 147:4054–4059.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Constant, S. L., and Wilson, R. A., 1992, In vivo responses in the draining lymph nodes of mice exposed to Schistosoma mansoni: Preferential proliferation of T cells is central to the induction of protective immunity, Cell. Immunol. 139:145–161.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, J., and Coulter, A., 1992, Advances in adjuvant technology and application, in: Animal Parasite Control Utilizing Biotechnology (W. K. Yong, ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 49–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craven, D. E., Awdeh, R., Kunches, L. M., Yunis, E. J., Dienstag, J. L., Werner, B. G., Polk, B. F., Syndman, D. R., Platt, R., and Crumpacker, C. S., 1986, Nonresponsiveness to hepatitis B vaccine in health care workers. Results of revaccination and genetic typings, Ann. Intern. Med. 105:356–360.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Czerkinsky, C., Russell, M. W., Lycke, N., Lindbad, M., and Holmgren, J., 1989, Oral administration of a streptococcal antigen coupled to cholera toxin B subunit evokes strong antibody responses in salivary glands and extramucosal tissues, Infect. Immun. 57:1072–1077.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daugelat, S., Guile, H., Schoel, B., and Kaufmann, S. H. E., 1992, Secreted antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis — Characterization with T-lymphocytes from patients and contacts after two-dimensional separation, J. Infect. Dis. 166:186–190.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Degen, E., and Williams, D. B., 1991, Participation of a novel 88 KD protein in the biogenesis of murine class I histocompatibility molecules, J. Cell Biol. 112:1099–1115.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Del Prete, G. F., De Carli, M., Mastromauro, C., Biagiotti, R., Macchia, D., Falagiani, P., Ricci, M., and Romagnani, S., 1991, Purified protein derivative of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and excretory-secretory antigen(s) of Toxocara canis expand in vitro human T cells with stable and opposite (type 1 T helper or type 2 T helper) profile of cytokine production, J. Clin. Invest. 88:346–350.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Del Prete, G. F., De Carli, M., Almerigogna, F., Grazia-Giudizi, M., Biagiotti, R., and Romagnani, S., 1993, Human IL-10 is produced by both type 1 helper (TH1) and type 2 helper (TH2) T cell clones and inhibits their antigen-specific proliferation and cytokine production, J. Immunol. 150:353–360.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Del Prete, G. F., Maggi, E., and Romagnani, S., 1994, Biology of disease: Human Thl and Th2 cells: Functional properties, mechanisms of regulation, and role in disease, Lab. Invest. 70:299–306.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dessein, A. J., Couissinier, P., Demeure, C., Rihet, P., Kohlstaedt, S., Carneiro-Carvalho, D., Ouattara, M., Goudot-Crozel, V., Dessein, H., Bourgois, A., Carvallo, E. M, and Prata, A., 1992, Environmental, genetic and immunological factors in human resistance to Schistosoma mansoni, Immunol. Invest. 21:423–453.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deveikis, A., Kim, K. S., and Ward, J. I., 1988, Prevention of H. influenzae type b in infant rats by human antibody induced by the capsular Polysaccharides and polysaccharide-conjugate vaccines, Vaccines 6:14–18.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Waal-Malefyt, R., Haanen, J., Spits, H., Roncarolo, M.-G., Velde, A., Figdor, C., Johnson, K., Kastelein, R., Yssel, H., and De Vries, J., 1991, Interleukin 10 (IL-10) and viral IL-10 strongly reduce antigenspecific human T cell proliferation by diminishing the antigen-presenting capacity of monocytes via down regulation of class II major histocompatibility complex expression, J. Exp. Med. 174:915–924.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Disis, M. L., Calenoff, E., McLaughlin, G., Murphy, A. E., Chen, W., Groner, B., Jeschke, M., Lydon, N., McGlynn, E., Livingston, R. B., Moe, R., and Cheever, M. A., 1994, Existent T-cell and antibody immunity to HER-2/neu protein in patients with breast cancer, Cancer Res. 54:16–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doherty, P. C., 1993, Virus infections in mice with targeted gene disruptions, Curr. Opin. Immunol. 5:479–483.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doherty, P. C., Allan, W., Eichelberger, M., and Carding, S. R., 1992, Roles of αβ and γδ T cell subsets in viral immunity, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 10:123–151.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Donbrow, M., Azaz, E., and Pillersdorf, A., 1978, Autoxidation of polysorbates, J. Pharm. Sci. 67:1676–1681.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dryden, M. W., and Blakemore, J. C., 1989, A review of flea allergy dermatitis in the dog and cat, Compan. Animal Pract. 19:10–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunne, D. W., Butterworth, A. E., Fulford, A. J. C., Kariuki, H. C., Langley, J. G., Ouma, J. H., Capron, A., Pierce, R. J., and Sturrock, R. F., 1992, Immunity after treatment of human Schistosomiasis: Association between IgE antibodies to adult worm antigens and resistance to reinfection, Eur. J. Immunol. 22:1483–1494.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eddleston, A., 1990, Modern vaccines. Hepatitis, Lancet 1:1142–1145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edelman, R., and Tacket, C. O., 1990, Adjuvants, Int. Rev. Immunol. 7:51–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eichelberger, M., Allan, W., Zijlstra, M., Jaenisch, R., and Doherty, P. C., 1991, Clearance of influenza virus respiratory infection in mice lacking class I major histocompatibility complex-restricted CD8+ T cells, J. Exp. Med. 174:875–880.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Einhorn, M. S., Weinberg, G. A., Anderson, E. L., Granoff, P. D., and Granoff, D. M., 1986, Immunogenicity in infants of H. influenzae type b Polysaccharide in a conjugate vaccine with Neisseria meningitidis outer-membrane protein, Lancet 2:299–302.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eisen, H. N., and Siskind, G. W., 1964, Variations in affinities of antibodies during the immune response, Biochemistry 3:400–996.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eldridge, J. H., Staas, J. K., Meulbroek, J. A., McGhee, J. R., Rice, T. R., and Gilley, R. M., 1991, Biodegradable microspheres as a vaccine delivery system, Mol. Immunol. 28:287–294.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elson, C. O., and Ealding, W., 1984, Cholera toxin feeding did not induce oral tolerance in mice or abrogated oral tolerance to an unrelated oral antigen, J. Immunol. 133:2892–2897.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emini, E. A., Ellis, R. W., Miller, W. J., McAleer, W. J., Scolnick, E. M., and Gerety, R. J., 1986, Production and immunological analysis of recombinant hepatitis B virus vaccine, J. Infect. 13(A):31–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, S. L., Misplon, J. A., Lawson, C. M., Subbarao, E. K., Connors, M., and Murphy, B. R., 1993, β2-microglobulin-deficient mice can be protected against influenza A infection by vaccination with vaccinia-influenza recombinants expressing hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, J. Immunol. 150:5484–5493.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ertiirk, M., Wellcn, M. J., Phillpotts, R. J., and Jennings, R., 1989, Protection and serum antibody responses in guinea pigs and mice immunized with HSV-1 antigen preparations obtained with different detergents, Vaccine 7:431–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fadda, G., Maida, A., Masia, C., Obino, G., Romano, G., and Spano, E., 1987, Efficacy of hepatitis B immunization with reduced intradermal doses, Eur. J. Epidemiol. 3:176–189.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Falk, K., Rotzschke, O., and Rammensee, H.-G., 1990, Cellular peptide composition governed by major histocompatibility complex class I molecules, Nature 348:248–251.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Falk, K., Rotzschke, O., Stevanovic, S., Jung, G., and Rammensee, H. G., 1991, Allele-specific motifs revealed by sequencing of self-peptides eluted from MHC molecules, Nature 351:290–295.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, H. A., 1962, Protective value of inactivated measle vaccine, Am. J. Dis. Child. 103:423–424.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fenton, R. G., Taub, D. D., Kwak, L. W., Smith, M. R., and Longo, D. L., 1993, Cytotoxic T-cell response and in vivo protection against tumor cells harboring activated ras proto-oncogenes, J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 85:1294–1302.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flynn, J. L., Goldstein, M. M, Triebold, K. J., Koller, B., and Bloom, B. R., 1992, Major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted T cells are required for resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:12013–12017.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fulginiti, V. A., 1982, Immunizations: Current controversies, J. Pediatr. 101:487–494.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fulginiti, V. A., and Kempe, C. H., 1963, Measles exposure among vaccine recipients, Am. J. Dis. Child. 106:450–461.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fung, P. Y. S., Madej, M., Koganty, R., and Longenecker, B. M., 1990, Active specific immunotherapy of a murine mammary adenocarcinoma using a synthetic tumor-associated glycoconjugate, Cancer Res. 50:4308–4314.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Geiger, T., and Clarke, S., 1987, Deamidation, isomerization, and racemization of asparaginyl and aspartyl residues in peptides. Succinimide-linked reactions that contribute to protein degradation, J. Biol. Chem. 262:785–794.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gheorghiu, M., Mouton, D., Lecoeur, H., Lagranderie, M., Mevel, J. C., and Biozzi, G., 1985, Resistance of high and low antibody responder lines of mice to the growth of a virulent (BCG) and virulent (H37Rv) strains of mycobacteria, Clin. Exp. Immunol. 59:177–184.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilley, R. M., Staas, J. K., Tice, T. R., Morgan, J. D., and Eldridge, J. H., 1992, Proc. Int. Symp. Control. Rel. Bioact. Mater. 19:110–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillott, D. J., Nouri, A. M., Compton, S. J., and Oliver, R. T., 1993, Accurate and rapid assessment of MHC antigen upregulation following cytokine stimulation, J. Immunol. Methods 165:231–239.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, A. L., and Rock, K. L., 1992, Proteolysis, proteosomes and antigen presentation, Nature 357:375–379.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gorse, G. J., Patel, G., Mandava, M., Belshe, R., and the NIH NIAID AIDS Vaccine Clinical Trials Network, 1993, Cellular responses to T cell epitopes of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein after vaccination with recombinant gp160 (rgp160), 33rd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, New Orleans, Abstract 1135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, B. S., Henderson, G. S., Tang, Y.-W., Lu, X., Neuzil, K. M., and Colley, D. G., 1993a, Priming immunization determines T helper cytokine mRNA expression patterns in lungs of mice challenged with respiratory syncytial virus, J. Immunol. 151:2032–2040.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, B. S., Keefer, M. C., McElrath, J., Matthews, T. J., Schwartz, D., Gorse, G. J., Sposto, R., Chernoff, D., and the NIH NIAID AIDS Vaccine Clinical Trials Network, 1993b, Phase I trial of native HIV-1SF2 rgp120 candidate vaccine, IX International Conference on AIDS, Berlin, Germany, Abstract PO-A29-0692.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, D., 1993, Immunological memory, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 11:49–77.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, D., and Matzinger, P., 1991, T cell memory is short-lived in the absence of antigen, J. Exp. Med. 174:969–974.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, D., and Sharvall, H., 1988, B-cell memory is short-lived in the absence of antigen, Nature 336:70–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, D., and Sprent, J., 1990, Immunological memory, Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 159:1–141.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graziosi, C., Pantaleo, G., Gantt, K. R., Fortin, J.-P., Demarest, J. F., Cohen, O. J., Sekaly, R. P., and Fausi, A. S., 1994, Lack of evidence for the dichotomy of Th1 and Th2 predominance for HIV-infected individuals, Science 265:248–252.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green, J. D., and Terrell, T. G., 1992, Utilization of homologous proteins to evaluate the safety of recombinant human proteins — case study: Recombinant human interferon gamma (rhIFN-g), Toxicol. Lett. 64/65:321–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregoriadis, G., Davis, D., and Davis, A., 1987, Liposomes as immunological adjuvants, Vaccine 5:145–151.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gu, L. C., Erdos, E. A., Chiang, H. S., Calderwood, T., Tsai, K., Visor, G. C., Duffy, J., Hsu, W. C., and Foster, L. C., 1991, Stability of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1 beta) in aqueous solution: Analytical methods, kinetics, products, and solution formulation implications, Pharm. Res. 8:485–490.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, P., Blumenthal, U. J., Dunne, D. W., Simpson, A. J. G., and Wilkins, H. A., 1991, Human IgE, IgG4 and resistance to reinfection with Schistosoma haematobium, Nature 349:243–245.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haigwood, N. L., Nara, P. L., Brooks, E., Van Nest, G. A., Ott, G., Higgins, K. W., Dunlop, N., Scandella, C. J., Eichberg, J. W., and Steimer, K. S., 1992, Native but not denatured recombinant human immunodeficiency virus type I gp120 generates broad-spectrum neutralizing antibodies in baboons, J. Virol. 66:172–182.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hamburger, R., Azaz, E., and Donbrow, M., 1975, Autoxidation of polyoxyethylenic non-ionic surfactants and of polyethylene glycols, Pharm. Acta Helv. 50:10–17.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harding, C. V., Collins, D. S., Slot, J. W., Geuze, H. J., and Unanue, E. R., 1991, Liposome-encapsulated antigens are processed in lysomes, recycled and presented to T-cells, Cell 64:393–401.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, A. W., and Playfair, J. H. L., (eds.), 1991, Vaccines 91, Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, pp. 351–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hellstrom, K. E., and Hellstrom, I., 1989, Oncogene-associated tumor antigens as targets for immunotherapy, FASEB J. 3:1715–1722.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herrington, D., Davis, J., Nardin, E. H., Beier, M., Cortese, J., Eddy, H., Losonsky, G., Hollingdale, M., Sztein, M., Levine, M., Nussenzweig, R. S., Clyde, D., and Edelman, R., 1991, Successful immunization of humans with irradiated malaria sporozoites: Humoral and cellular responses of the protected individuals, Am. J. Med. Hyg. 45:539–547.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hess, G., Hingst, V., Cseke, J., Bock, H. L., and Clemens, R., 1992, Influence of vaccination schedules and host factors on antibody response following hepatitis B vaccination, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 11:334–340.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hilleman, M. R., 1993, The promise and the reality of viral vaccines against cancer, Ann. NY. Acad. Sci. 690:6–18.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hilleman, M. R., Buynak, E. B., Roehm, R. R., Tytell, A. A., Bertland, A. U., and Lampson, G. P., 1975, Purified and inactivated human hepatitis B vaccine: Progress report, Am. J. Med. Sci. 270:401–404.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holmgren, J., Dzerkinsky, C., Lycke, N., and Svennerholm, A.-M., 1992, Mucosal immunity: Implications for vaccine development, Immunobiology 184:157–179.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hora, M. S., Rana, R. K., Wilcox, C. L., Katre, N. V., Hirtzer, P., Wolfe, S. N., and Thomson, J. W., 1992, Development of a lyophilized formulation of interleukin-2, Dev. Biol. Stand. 74:295–303.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hou, S., Doherty, P. C., Zijlstra, M., Jaenisch, R., and Katz, J. M., 1992, Delayed clearance of Sendai virus in mice lacking class I MHC-restricted CD8+ T cells, J. Immunol. 149:1319–1325.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hou, S., Hyland, L., Ryan, K. W., Portner, A., and Doherty, P. C., 1994, Virus-specific CD8+ T-cell memory determined by clonal burst size, Nature 369:652–654.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Houbiers, J. G. A., Nijman, H. W., van der Burg, S. H., Drijfhout, J. W., Kenemans, P., van de Velde, C. J. H., Brand, A., Momburg, F., Kast, W. M., and Melief, C. J. M., 1993, In vitro induction of human cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses against peptides of mutant and wild-type p53, Eur. J. Immunol. 23:2072–2077.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, R. D., Flory, C. M., and Collins, F. M., 1992a, Immunization of mice with mycobacterial culture filtrate proteins, Clin. Exp. Immunol. 87:94–98.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, R. D., Flory, C. M., Collins, F. M., and Cocito, C., 1992b, Immunization of mice with the antigen A60 of Mycobacterium bovis BCG, Clin. Exp. Immunol. 88:129–131.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, D. F., Michel, H., Dickinson, T. A., Shabanowitz, J., Cox, A. L., Sakaguchi, K., Appella, E., Grey, H. M, and Sette, A., 1992, Peptides presented to the immune system by the murine class II major histocompatibility complex molecule I-Ad, Science 256:660–662.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inazu, K., and Shima, K., 1992, Freeze drying and quality evaluation of protein drugs, Dev. Biol. Stand. 74:307–322.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Insel, R. A., and Anderson, P. W., 1986, Oligosaccharide-protein conjugate vaccines induce and prime for oligoclonal IgG antibody responses to the H. influenzae b capsular Polysaccharide in human infants, J. Exp. Med. 163:262–269.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ioannides, C. G., Fisk, B., Jerome, K. R., Irimura, T., Wharton, T., and Finn, O. J., 1993, Cytotoxic T cells from ovarian malignant tumors can recognize polymorphic epithelial mucin core peptides, J. Immunol. 151:3693–3703.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, M. R., Cohen-Doyle, M. F., Peterson, P. A., and Williams, D. B., 1994, Regulation of MHC class I transport by the molecular chaperon, calnexin (p88, IP90), Science 263:384–387.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jamieson, B. D., and Ahmed, R., 1989, T cell memory: Long-term persistence of virus-specific cytotoxic T cells, J. Exp. Med. 169:1993–2005.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jerome, K. R., Barnd, D. L., Bendt, K. M., Boyer, C. M., Taylor-Papadimitriou, J., McKenzie, I. F. C., Bast, R. C., and Finn, O. J., 1991, Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes derived from patients with breast adenocarcinoma recognize an epitope present on the protein core of a mucin molecule preferentially expressed by malignant cells, Cancer Res. 51:2908–2916.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jerome, K. R., Domenech, N., and Finn, O. J., 1993, Tumor-specific cytotoxic T cell clones from patients with breast and pancreatic adenocarcinoma recognize EBV-immortalized B cells transfected with polymorphic epithelial mucin complementary DNA, J. Immunol. 161:1654–1662.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jertborn, M., Svennerholm, A.-M., and Holmgren, J., 1993, Evaluation of different immunization schedules for oral cholera B subunit-whole cell vaccine in Swedish volunteers, Vaccine 11:1007–1012.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jilg, W., Bittner, R., Bock, H. L., Clemens, R., Schatzl, H., Schmidt, M., Andre, F. E., and Deinhardt, F., 1992, Vaccination against hepatitis A: Comparison of different short-term immunization schedules, Vaccine 10(Suppl.): 126–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jin, Y., Shin, J. W. K., and Berkower, I., 1988, Human T cell response to the surface antigen of hepatitis B virus (HBsAg). Endosomal and nonendosomal processing pathways are accessible to both endogenous and exogenous antigen, J. Exp. Med. 168:293–296.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. M., and Gu, L. C., 1988, in: Encyclopedia of Pharmaceutical Technology, Vol. 1 (J. Swarbrick and J. C. Boylan, eds.), Dekker, New York, pp. 414–449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, A. J. S., 1993, Analysis of Polypeptides and proteins, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 10:29–90.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, W. R., Bradley, J., Judd, S. J., Denholm, E. H., Ing, R. M. Y., Mueller, U. W., Powell, J., Griffin, P. D., and Stevens, V. C., 1988, Phase I clinical trial of a World Health Organization birth control vaccine, Lancet 1:1295–1298.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Just, M., Kanra, G., Bogaerts, H., Berger, R., Ceyhan, M., and Pêtre, J., 1991, Two trials of an acellular DTP vaccine in comparison with a whole-cell DTP vaccine in infants: Evaluation of two PT doses and two vaccination schedules, Dev. Biol. Stand. 73:275–283.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Just, M., Berger, R., and Just, V., 1993, Reactogenicity and immunogenicity of a recombinant hepatitis B vaccine compared with a plasma-derived vaccine in young adults, Postgrad. Med. J. 63:121–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalish, M. L., Check, I. J., and Hunter, R. L., 1991, Murine IgG isotype responses to the Plasmodium cynomolgi circumsporozoite peptide (NAGG)5. I. Effects on carrier, copolymer adjuvants, and lipopolysaccharide on isotype selection, J. Immunol. 146:3583–3590.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kapikian, A. Z., Mitchell, R. H., Chanock, R. M., Shvedoff, R. A., and Stewart, C. E., 1969, An epidemiological study of altered clinical reactivity to respiratory syncytial (RS) virus infection in children previously vaccinated with an inactivated RS vaccine, Am. J. Epidemiol. 89:405–421.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karagouni, E. E., and Hadjipetrou-Kourounakis, L., 1990, Regulation of isotype immunoglobulin production by adjuvants in vivo, Scand. J. Immunol. 31:745–754.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kast, W. M., Bronkhorst, A. M., de Waal, L. P., and Melief, C. J. M., 1986, Cooperation between cytotoxic and helper T lymphocytes in protection against lethal Sendai virus infection, J. Exp. Med. 164:723–738.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, S. H. E., 1993, Immunity to intracellular bacteria, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 11:129–164.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kayhty, H., Karanko, V, Peltola, H., and Makela, P. H., 1984, Serum antibodies after vaccination with H. influenzae type b capsular Polysaccharide and responses to reimmunization: No evidence of immunological tolerance or memory, Pediatrics 74:857–865.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, A., Powis, S. H., Kerr, L.-A., Mockridge, I., Elliott, T., Bastin, J., Uchanska-Ziegler, B., Ziegler, A., and Townsend, A., 1992, Assembly and function of the two ABC transporter proteins encoded in the human major histocompatibility complex, Nature 355:641–644.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kenney, J. S., Huges, B. W., Masada, M. P., and Allison, A. C., 1989, Influence of adjuvants on the quantity, affinity, isotype and epitope specificity of murine antibodies, J. Immunol. Methods 121:157–166.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kensil, C. H., Patel, U., Lennick, M, and Marciani, D., 1991, Separation and characterization of saponins with adjuvant activity from Quillaja saponaria molina cortex, J. Immunol. 146:431–437.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kiefhaber, T., Rudolph, R., Kohler, H.-H., and Buchner, J., 1991, Protein aggregation in vitro and in vivo: A quantitative model of the kinetic competition between folding and aggregation, Biotechnology 9:825–830.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kilbourne, E. D., 1988, Inactivated influenza vaccines, in: Vaccines (S. A. Plotkin and E. A. Mortimer, eds.), Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 420–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. W., Canchola, J. G., Brandt, C. D., Pyles, G., Chanock, R. M., Jensen, K., and Parrott, R. H., 1969, Respiratory syncytial virus disease in infants despite prior administration of antigenic inactivated vaccine, Am. J. Epidemiol. 89:422–434.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King, C. L., and Nutman, T. B., 1992, Biological role of helper T-cell subsets in helminth infections, Chem. Immunol. 54:136–165.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • King, C. L., Low, C. C., and Nutman, T. B., 1993, IgE production in human helminth infection. Reciprocal interrelationship between IL-4 and IFNγ, J. Immunol. 150:1873–1880.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kruskall, M. S., Alper, C. A., Awdeh, Z., Yunis, E. J., and Marcus-Bagley, D., 1992, The immune response to hepatitis B vaccine in humans: Inheritance patterns in families, J. Exp. Med. 175:495–502.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanzavecchia, A., 1990, Receptor-mediated antigen uptake and its effect on antigen presentation to class II-restricted T lymphocytes, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 8:773–793.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • LaRosa, G. J., David, J. P., Weinhold, K., Waterbury, J. A., Profy, A. T., Lewis, J. A., Langlois, A. J., Dreesman, G. R., Boswell, R. N., Shedduck, P., Holley, L. H., Kamplus, M., Bolognesi, D. P., Mathews, T. J., Emini, E. A., and Putney, S. D., 1990, Conserved sequences and structural elements in the HIV-1 principal neutralizing determinant, Science 249:932–935.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, L. L., Jamieson, B. D., Somasundaram, T., and Ahmed, R., 1994, Cytotoxic T-cell memory without antigen, Nature 369:648–652.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, W. T., and Vitetta, E. S., 1991, The differential expression of homing and adhesion molecules on virgin and memory T cells in the mouse, Cell. Immunol. 132:215–222.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lehmann-Grube, F., Lohler, J., Utermohlen, O., and Gegin, C., 1993, Antiviral immune responses of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus-infected mice lacking CD8+ T lymphocytes because of disruption of the β2-microglobulin gene, J. Virol. 67:332–339.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, M. M., Losonsky, G., Herrington, D., Kaper, J. B., Tacket, C., Rennels, M. B., and Morris, J. G., 1986, Pediatric diarrhea: The challenge of prevention, J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. 5(Suppl.):29–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liang, X., Lamm, M. E., and Nedrud, J. G., 1988, Oral administration of cholera toxin-Sendai virus conjugate potentiates gut and respiratory immunity against Sendai virus, J. Immunol. 141:1495–1501.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lidgate, D. M., Fu, R. C., Byars, N. E., Foster, L. C., and Fleitman, J. S., 1989, Formulation of vaccine adjuvant muramyldipeptides. 3. Processing optimization, characterization, and bioactivity of an emulsion vehicle, Pharm. Res. 6:748–752.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lim, A., Cleland, J. L., Powell, M. F., Jacobsen, N., Basa, L., Spellman, M., Bedore, D., and Kensil, C. R., 1994, QS21 formulation stability and degradation products, Am. Assoc. Pharm. Sci. Meet., San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linton, P.-J., and Klinman, N. R., 1992, The generation of memory B cells, Semin. Immunol. 4:3–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Linton, P.-J., Decker, D. J., and Klinman, N. R., 1989, Primary antibody forming cells and secondary B cells are generated from separate precursor cell subpopulations, Cell 59:1049–1059.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, W. R., Langer, R., and Klibanov, A. M., 1991, Moisture-induced aggregation of lyophilized proteins in the solid state, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 37:177–180.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Long, E. O., and Jacobson, S., 1989, Pathways of viral antigen processing and presentation to CTL, Immunol. Today 10:45–48.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lubin, R., Schlichtholz, B., Bengoufa, D., Zalcman, G., Tredaniel, J., Hirsch, A., Caron de Fromentel, C., Preudhomme, C., Fenaux, P., Fournier, G., Mangin, P., Laurent-Puig, P., Pelletier, G., Schlumberger, M., Desgrandchamps, F., Le Duc, A., Peyrat, J. P., Janin, N., Bressac, B., and Soussi, T., 1993, Analysis of p53 antibodies in patients with various cancers define B cell epitopes of human p53: Distribution on primary structure and exposure on protein surface, Cancer Res. 53:5872–5876.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McAleer, W. J., Buynak, E. B., Maigetter, R. Z., Wampler, D. E., Miller, W. J., and Hilleman, M. R., 1984, Human hepatitis B virus vaccine from recombinant yeast, Nature 307:178–180.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McElrath, M. J., Corey, L., Berger, D., Hoffman, M. C., Klucking, S., Dragavon, J., Peterson, E., and Greenberg, P. D., 1994, Immune responses elicited by recombinant vaccinia-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) envelope and HIV envelope protein: Analysis of the durability of responses and effect of repeated boosting, J. Infect. Dis. 169:41–47.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McGhee, J. R., Fujihashi, K., Wu, A.-J., Elson, C. O., Beagley, K. W., and Kiyono, H., 1993, New perspectives in mucosal immunity with emphasis on vaccine development, Semin. Hematol. 30(4):3–12.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mackay, C. R., 1993, Immunological memory, Adv. Immunol. 53:217–265.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacKenzie, J. S., 1977, Influenza subunit vaccine: Antibody responses to one and two doses of vaccine and length of response, with reference to the elderly, Br. Med. J. 1:200–202.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie, S. J., and Halsey, J. F., 1984, Cholera toxin B subunit as a carrier protein to stimulate a mucosal immune response, J. Immunol. 133:1818–1824.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Madden, K. B., Urban, J. F., Ziltener, H. J., Schrader, J. W., Finkelman, F. D., and Katona, I. M., 1991, Antibodies to IL-3 and IL-4 suppress helminth-induced intestinal mastocytosis, J. Immunol. 147:1387–1391.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maggi, E., Mazzetti, M., Ravina, A., Annunziato, F., De Carli, M., Piccinni, M. P., Manetti, R., Carbonari, M., Pesce, A. M., Del Prete, G., and Romagnani, S., 1994, Ability of HIV to promote a ThI to Th0 shift and to replicate preferentially in ThI to ThO cells, Science 265:244–248.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahanty, S., Abrams, J. S., King, C. L., Limaye, A. P., and Nutman, T. B., 1992, Parallel regulation of IL-4 and IL-5 in human helminth infections, J. Immunol. 148:3567–3571.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Makela, P. H., Peltola, H., Kayhty, H., Jousimies, H., Pettay, O., Ruoslahti, E., Sivonen, A., and Renkonen, 1977, Polysaccharide vaccines of group A Neisseria meningitidis and Haemophilus influenzae type b: A field trial in Finland, J. Infect. Dis. 136(Suppl.):43–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malik, A., Egan, J. E., Houghten, R. A., Sadoff, J. C., and Hoffman, S. L., 1991, Human cytotoxic T lymphocytes against the Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:3300–3304.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, M. C., Patel, K., and Borchardt, R. T., 1989, Stability of protein Pharmaceuticals, Pharm. Res. 6:903.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, C. K., and Monaco, J. J., 1991, Homology of proteasome subunits to a major histocompatibility complex-linked LMP gene, Nature 353:664–667.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marx, P. A., Compans, R. W., Gettie, A., Staas, J. K., Gilley, R. M., Mulligan, M. J., Yamshchikov, G. V., Chen, D., and Eldridge, J. H., 1993, Protection against SIV transmission with microencapsulated vaccine, Science 260:1323–1327.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maupas, P., Goudeau, A., Coursaget, P., Drucker, J., and Bagros, P., 1976, Immunization against hepatitis B in man, Lancet 1:1367–1370.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, M. D., Gould-Fogerite, S., Shen, L., Woods, R. M., Koenig, S., Mannino, R. J., and Letvin, N. L., 1992, Vaccination of rhesus monkeys with synthetic peptide in a fusogenic proteoliposome elicits simian immunodeficiency virus-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes, J. Exp. Med. 176:1739–1744.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Millet, P., Collins, W. E., Broderson, J. R., Bathurst, I., Nardin, E. H., and Nussenzweig, R. S., 1991, Inhibitory activity against Plasmodium vivax sporozoites induced by plasma from Saimiri monkeys immunized with circumsporozoite recombinant proteins or irradiated sporozoites, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 45:44–48.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Modlin, R. L., and Nutman, T. B., 1993, Type 2 cytokines and negative immune regulation in human infections, Curr. Opin. Immunol. 5:511–517.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mollica, J. A., Ahuja, S., and Cohen, J., 1978, Stability of Pharmaceuticals, J. Pharm. Sci. 67:443–465.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Monaco, J. J., Cho, S., and Attaya, M., 1990, Transport proteins in the murine MHC: Possible implications for antigen processing, Science 250:1723–1726.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mordenti, J., Nguyen, T., Eastman, D., Osaka, G., Frie, S., Weissburg, R. P., Berman, P. W., Abramowitz, P., DiStefano, J., III, and Powell, M. F., 1994, Effects of alum on i.m. absorption and immunogenicity of MN rgp120 in rabbits, Am. Assoc. Pharm. Sci. Meet., San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morefield, E. M., Peck, G. E., Feldkamp, J. R., White, J. L., and Hem., S. L., 1986, Role of water in the aging of aluminum hydroxide suspensions, J. Pharm. Sci. 75:403–406.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno, A., Clavijo, P., Edelman, R., Davis, J., Sztein, M., Herrington, D., and Nardin, E., 1991, Cytotoxic CD4+ T cells from a sporozoite-immunized volunteer recognize the Plasmodium falciparum CS protein, Int. Immunol. 3:997–1003.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mortimer, E. A., 1988a, Diphtheria toxoid, in: Vaccines (S. A. Plotkin and E. A. Mortimer, eds.), Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 31–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mortimer, E. A., 1988b, Pertussis vaccine, in: Vaccines (S. A. Plotkin and E. A. Mortimer, eds.), Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 74–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moskophidis, D., Lechner, F., Pircher, H., and Zinkernagel, R. M., 1993, Virus persistence in acutely infected immunocompetent mice by exhaustion of antiviral cytotoxic effector T cells, Nature 362:758–761.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mosmann, T. R., and Coffman, R. L., 1989, TH1 and TH2 cells: Different patterns of lymphokine secretion lead to different functional properties, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 7:145–173.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mosmann, T. R., Cherwinski, H., Bond, M. W, Gieldlin, M. A., and Coffman, R. L., 1986, Two types of murine helper T cell clones: 1. Definition according to profiles of lymphokine activities and secreted proteins, J. Immunol. 136:2348–2357.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mountford, A. P., Coulson, P. S., Pemberton, R. M., Smythies, L. E., and Wilson, R. A., 1992, The generation of interferon-γ-producing T lymphocytes in skin-draining lymph nodes, and their recruitment to the lungs, is associated with protective immunity to Schistosoma mansoni, Immunology 75:250–256.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muller, D., Koller, B. H., Whitton, J. L., LaPan, K. E., Brigman, K. K., and Frelinger, J. A., 1992, LCMV-specific, class II-restricted cytotoxic T cells in β2-microglobulin-deficient mice, Science 255:1576–1578.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Müller, R., Chriske, H., Deinhardt, J. J., Jilg, J., Theilmann, L., Hess, G., Hofmann, F., Hopf, U., Stickl, H., and Mainwald, H., 1992, Hepatitis A vaccination: Schedule for accelerated immunization, Vaccine 10(Suppl.): 124–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, F. A., and Kingsbury, D. W., 1990, Virus taxonomy, in: Virology, Vol. 1 (B. N. Fields and D. M. Knipe, eds.), Raven Press, New York, pp. 9–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mustafa, A. S., Lundin, K. E. A., and Oftung, F., 1993, Human T cells recognize mycobacterial heat shock proteins in the context of multiple HLA-DR molecules: Studies with healthy subjects vaccinated with Mycobacterium bovis BCG and Mycobacterium leprae, Infect. Immun. 61:5294–5301.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nail, S. L., White, J. L., and Hem, S. L., 1976, Structure of aluminum hydroxide gel II. Aging mechanism, J. Pharm. Sci. 65:1192–1195.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nardin, E. H., and Nussenzweig, R. S., 1993, T cell responses to pre-erythrocytic stages of malaria: Role in protection and vaccine development against pre-erythrocytic stages, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 11:687–727.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nardin, E. H., Herringon, D. A., Davis, J., Levine, M., Stuber, D., Takacs, B., Caspers, P., Barr, P., Altszuler, R., Clavijo, P., and Nussenzweig, R. S., 1989, Conserved repetitive epitope recognized by CD4+ clones from a malaria immunized volunteer, Science 246:1603–1606.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nardin, E. S., Clavijo, P., Mons, B., van Belkum, A., Ponnudurai, T., and Nussenzweig, R. S., 1991, T cell epitopes of the circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium vivax. Recognition by lymphocytes of a sporozoite-immunized chimpanzee, J. Immunol. 146:1674–1678.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neefjes, J. J., Stollorz, V, Peters, P. J., Geuze, H. J., and Ploegh, H. L., 1990, The biosynthetic pathway of MHC class II but not class I molecules intersects the endocytic route, Cell 61:171–183.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Newman, M. J., Wu, J.-Y., Gardner, B. H., Munroe, K. J., Leombruno, D., Recchia, J., Kensil, C. R., and Coughlin, R. T., 1992, Saponin adjuvant induction of ovalbumin-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses, J. Immunol. 148:2357–2362.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nijman, H. W., Houbiers, J. G. A., van der Burg, S. H., Vierboom, M. P. M., Kenemans, P., Kast, W. M., and Melief, C. J. M, 1993, Characterization of cytotoxic T lymphocyte epitopes of a self-protein, p53, and a non-self-protein, influenza matrix: Relationship between major histocompatibility complex peptide binding affinity and immune responsiveness to peptides, J. Immunother. 14:121–126.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nommensen, F. E., Go, S. T., and MacLaren, D. M., 1989, Half-life of HBs antibody after hepatitis B vaccination: An aid to timing of booster vaccination, Lancet 2:847–849.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norde, W., and Lyklema, J., 1991, Why proteins prefer interfaces, J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed. 2:183–202.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nuchtern, J. G., Biddison, W. E., and Klausner, R. D., 1990, Class II MHC molecules can use the endogenous pathway of antigen presentation, Nature 343:11–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oehen, S., Waldner, H., Kundig, T. M., Hengartner, H., and Zinkernagel, R. M., 1992, Antivirally protective cytotoxic T cell memory lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus is governed by persisting antigen, J. Exp. Med. 176:1273–1281.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ogle, J. D., Noel, J. G., Balasubramaniam, A., Sramoski, R. M., Ogle, C. K., and Alexander, J. W., 1990, Comparison of abilities of recombinant interleukin-1 alpha and-beta and noninflammatory IL-1 beta fragment 163–171 to upregulate C3b receptors (CR1) on human neutrophils and to enhance their phagocytic capacity, Inflammation 14:185–194.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orme, I. M., and Collins, F. M., 1983, Protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by adoptive immunotherapy. Requirement for T cell-deficient recipients, J. Exp. Med. 158:74–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pal, P. G., and Horwitz, M. A., 1992, Immunization with extracellular proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis induces cell-mediated immune responses and substantial protective immunity in a guinea pig model of pulmonary tuberculosis, Infect. Immun. 60:4781–4792.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pamer, E. G., 1993, Cellular immunity to intracellular bacteria, Curr. Opin. Immunol. 5:492–496.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parronchi, P., Macchia, D., Piccinni, M. P., Biswas, P., Simonelli, C., Maggi, E., Ricci, M., Ansari, A. A., and Romagnani, S., 1991, Allergen-and bacterial antigen-specific T cell clones established from atopic donors show a different profile of cytokine production, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:4538–4542.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, W. E., and Seder, R. A., 1994, Lymphocyte responses and cytokines, Cell 76:241–251.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peace, D. J., Chen, W., Nelson, H., and Cheever, M. A., 1991, T-cell recognition of transforming proteins encoded by mutated ras proto-oncogenes, J. Immunol. 146:2059–2065.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlman, R., and Nguyen, T., 1992, Pharmaceutics of protein drugs, J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 44:178–185.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Penney, C. L., Landi, S., Shah, P., Leung, K. H., and Archer, M. C., 1986, Analysis of the immunoadjuvant octadecyl tyrosine hydrochloride, J. Biol. Stand. 14:345–349.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, P. J., Neefjes, J. J., Oorschot, V., Ploegh, H. L., and Geuze, H. J., 1991, Segregation of MHC class II molecules from MHC class I molecules in the Golgi complex for transport to the lysosomal compartments, Nature 349:669–676.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Philipson, L., 1962, Oxidation of 2,3-dimercaptopropranol, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 56:375–381.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pierce, N. F., 1984, Induction of optimal mucosal antibody responses: Effects of age, immunization route(s), and dosing schedule in rats, Infect. Immun. 43:341–346.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pikal, M. J., 1990, Freeze-drying of proteins — Part II: Formulation selection, Biopharm. 3:26–30.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pikal, M. J., 1993, Freeze drying of proteins: Process, formulation, and stability, Protein Formulations and Delivery Symposium, 205th American Chemical Society Meeting (abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Pikal, M. J., Dellerman, K., and Roy, M. L., 1991a, Formulation and stability of freeze-dried proteins: Effects of moisture and oxygen on the stability of freeze-dried formulations of human growth hormone, Dev. Biol. Stand. 74:21–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pikal, M. J., Dellerman, K. M., Roy, M. L., and Riggin, R. M., 1991b, The effects of formulation variables on the stability of freeze-dried human growth hormone, Pharm. Res. 8:427–436.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piszkiewicz, D., Landon, M., and Smith, E. L., 1970, Anomalous cleavage of aspartyl-proline peptide bonds during amino acid sequence determinations, Biochem, Biophys. Res. Commun. 40:1173–1178.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pithie, A. D., Rahelu, M., Kumararatne, D. S., Drysdale, P., Gaston, J. S. H., Iles, P. B., Innes, J. A., and Ellis, C. J., 1992, Generation of cytolytic T cells in individuals infected by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and vaccinated with BCG, Thorax 47:695–701.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plotkin, S. A., and Mortimer, E. A., (eds.), 1988, Vaccines, Saunders, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. F., 1994, Peptide stability in aqueous parenteral formulations: Prediction of chemical stability based on primary sequence, in: Protein Formulations and Delivery (J. L. Cleland and R. S. Langer, eds.), American Chemical Society Symposium Series 567:100–117.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. F., Foster, L. C., Becker, A. R., and Lee, W., 1988, Formulation of vaccine adjuvant muramyldipeptides (MDP). 2. The thermal reactivity and pH of maximum stability of MDP compounds in aqueous solution, Pharm. Res. 5:528–532.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, M. F., Eastman, D. J., Lim, A., Lucas, C., Peterson, M., Vennari, J., Weissburg, R. P., Wrin, T., Kensil, C., Newman, M. J., Nunberg, J. H., Cleland, J. L., Gregory, T., and Berman, P. W., 1995, Effect of adjuvants on the immunogenicity of the MN rgp120 vaccine in guinea pigs, AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Preblud, R., and Katz, S. L., 1988, Measles vaccine, in: Vaccines (S. A. Plotkin and E. A. Mortimer, eds.), Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 182–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preis, I., and Langer, R. S., 1979, A single shot immunization by sustained antigen release, J. Immunol. Methods 28:193–197.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prestrelski, S. J., Tedeschi, N., Carpenter, J. F., and Arakawa, T., 1993, Dehydration-induced conformational transitions in proteins and their inhibitors, Biophys. J. 65:661–671.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pullano, T. G., Sinn, E., and Carney, W. P., 1989, Characterization of monoclonal antibody R256, specific for the activated ras p21 with arginine at 12, and analysis of breast carcinoma for v-Harvey-ras transgenic mouse, Oncogene 4:1003–1008.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pupa, S. M., Menard, S., Andreola, S., and Colnaghi, M. I., 1993, Antibody response against the c-erbB-2 oncoprotein in breast carcinoma patients, Cancer Res. 53:5864–5866.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rajewsky, K., 1992, Early and late B-cell development in the mouse, Curr. Opin. Immunol. 4:171–176.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramon, G., 1926, Procedes pour accroitre 1a production des antioxines, Ann. Inst. Pasteur 40:1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed, S. G., and Scott, P., 1993, T cell and cytokine responses in leishmaniasis, Curr. Opin. Immunol. 5:524–531.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ribero, D. E., Jesus, A. M., Almeida, R. P., Bacelar, O., Araujo, M. I., Demeure, C., Bina, J. C., Dessein, A. J., and Carvalho, E. M., 1993, Correlation between cell-mediated immunity and degree of infection in subjects living in an endemic area of Schistosomiasis, Eur. J. Immunol. 23:152–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ridley, D. S., and Jopling, W. H., 1966, Classification of leprosy according to immunity. A five-group system, Int. J. Lepr. 34:255–273.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, A. B., and Rudd, C. J., 1974, in: Current Topics in Cellular Regulations, Vol. 8 (B. L. Horecker and E. R. Stadtman, eds.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 247–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, A. B., Scotchler, J. W., and McKerrow, J. H., 1973, Rates of nonenzymatic deamidation of glutaminyl and asparaginyl residues in pentapeptides, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 95:8156–8159.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rocha, C. L., Murillo, L. A., Mora, A. L., Rojas, M., Franco, L., Cote, J., Valero, M. V., Moreno, A., Amador, R., Nunez, F., Coronell, C., and Patarroyo, M. C., 1992, Determination of the immunization schedule for field trials with the synthetic malaria vaccine SPf 66, Parasite Immunol. 14:95–109.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rolink, A., and Melchers, F, 1991, Molecular and cellular origins of B lymphocyte diversity, Cell 66:1081–1094.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rotzschke, O., Falk, K., Deres, O., Schild, H., Norda, M., Metzger, J., Jung, G., and Rammensee, H.-G., 1990, Isolation and analysis of naturally processed viral peptides as recognized by cytotoxic T cells, Nature 348:252–253.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rudensky, A. Y., Preston-Hurlburt, P., Al-Ramadi, B. K., Rothbard, J., and Janeway, C. A., 1992, Truncation of variants of peptides isolated from MHC class II molecules suggest sequence motifs, Nature 359:429–431.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sadana, A., 1992, Protein adsorption and inactivation on surfaces. Influence of heterogeneities, Chem. Rev. 92:1799–1807.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saint-Leger, D., Bague, A., Cohen, E., and Chivot, M., 1986, A possible role for squalene in the pathogenesis of acne. I. In vitro study of squalene oxidation, Br. J. Dermatol. 114:535–542.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salgame, P., Abrams, J. S., Clayberger, C., Goldstein, H., Convit, J., Modlin, R. L., and Bloom, B. R., 1991, Differing lymphokine profiles of functional subsets of human CD4 and CD8 T cell clones, Science 254:279–282.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salk, D., van Wezel, A. L., and Salk, J., 1984, Induction of long term immunity to paralytic poliomyelitis by use of a non-infectious vaccine, Lancet 2:1317–1321.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salk, J. E., 1955, Considerations in the preparation and use of poliomyelitis virus vaccine, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 158:1239–1248.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salk, J., and Drucker, J., 1988, Noninfectious poliovirus vaccine, in: Vaccines (S. A. Plotkin and E. A. Mortimer, eds.), Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 158–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sato, S., Ebert, C. D., and Kim, S. W., 1984, Prevention of insulin self-association and surface adsorption, J. Pharm. Sci. 72:228–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scherle, P. A., Palladino, G., and Gerhard, W., 1992, Mice can recover from pulmonary influenza virus infection in the absence of class I-restricted cytotoxic T cells, J. Immunol. 148:212–217.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schneerson, R., Robbins, J. B., Parke, J. C., Parke, J. C., Bell, C., Schlesselman, J. J., Sutton, A., Wang, Z., Schiffman, G., Karpas, A., and Shiloach, J., 1986, Quantitative and qualitative analyses of serum antibodies elicited in adults by H. influenzae type b and pneumococcus type 6A capsular polysaccharidetetanus toxoid conjugates, Infect. Immun. 52:519–528.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, J., 1967, Cleavage at aspartic acid, Methods Enzymol. 11:255–263.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seeber, S. J., White, J. L., and Hem, S. L., 1991, Solubilization of aluminum-containing adjuvants by constituents of interstitial fluid, J. Parenter. Sci. Technol. 45:156–159.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sette, A., Buus, S., Colon, C., Miles, C., and Grey, H. M., 1988, 1-Ad binding peptides derived from unrelated proteins share a common structural motif,J. Immunol. 141:45–48.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shearer, G. M., and Clerici, M., 1992, T helper cell immune dysfunction in asymptomatic, HIV-1-seropositive individuals: The role of TH1–TH2 cross-regulation, Chem. Immunol. 54:21–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sher, A., and Coffman, R. L., 1992, Regulation of immunity to parasites by T cells and T cell-derived cytokines, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 10:385–409.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shirodkar, S., Hutchinson, R. L., Perry, D. L., White, J. L., and Hem, S. L., 1990, Aluminum compounds used as adjuvants in vaccines, Pharm. Res. 7:1282.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sieling, P. A., Abrams, J. S., Yamamura, M., Salgame, P., Bloom, B. R., Rea, T. H., and Modlin, R. L., 1993, Immunosuppressive roles for interleukin-10 and interleukin-4 in human infection: In vitro modulation of T cell responses in leprosy, J. Immunol. 150:5501–5510.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sluzky, V., Tamada, J., Klibanov, A. M., and Langer, R., 1991, Kinetics of insulin aggregation in aqueous solutions upon agitation in the presence of hydrophobic surfaces, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:9377–9381.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. H., Peter, G., and Ingram, D. L., 1973, Responses of children immunized with the capsular Polysaccharide of H. influenza, type b, Pediatrics 52:637–644.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. W, Wiegeshaus, E. H., and Edwards, M. L., 1988, The protective effects of BCG vaccination against tuberculosis, in: Mycobacterium tuberculosis Interactions with the Immune System (M. Bendinelli and H. Friedman, eds.), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 341–370.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Smythies, L. E., Coulson, P. S., and Wilson, R. A., 1992a, T cell-derived cytokines associated with pulmonary immune mechanisms in mice vaccinated with irradiated cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni, J. Immunol. 148:1512–1518.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smythies, L. E., Coulson, P. S., and Wilson, R. A., 1992b, Monoclonal antibody to IFN-y modifies pulmonary inflammatory responses and abrogates immunity to Schistosoma mansoni in mice vaccinated with attenuated cercariae, J. Immunol. 149:3654–3658.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spies, T., Cerundolo, V., Colonna, M., Cresswell, P., Townsend, A., and DeMars, R., 1992, Presentation of viral antigen by class I MHC molecules is dependent on a putative peptide transporter heterodimer, Nature 355:644–646.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sprent, J. T., 1994, T and B memory cells, Cell 76:315–322.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stadtman, E. R., 1990, Metal ion-catalyzed oxidation of proteins: Biochemical mechanism and biological consequences, Free Radical Biol. Med. 9:315–325.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steadman, B. L., Thompson, K. C., Middaugh, C. R., Matsuno, K., Vrona, S., Lawson, E. Q., and Lewis, R. V., 1992, The effects of surface adsorption on the thermal stability of proteins, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 40:8–12.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steiner, L. A., and Eisen, H. N., 1967, The relative affinity of antibodies synthesized in the secondary response, J. Exp. Med. 126:1185–1205.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, T. L., Bossie, A., Sanders, V. M, Fernandez-Botran, R., Coffman, R. L., Mosmann, T. R., and Vitetta, E. S., 1988, Regulation of antibody isotype secretion by subsets of antigen-specific helper T cells, Nature 334:255–258.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, V. C., and Jones, W. R., 1990, Vaccines to prevent pregnancy, in: New Generation Vaccines (G. C. Woodrow and M. M. Levine, eds.), Dekker, New York, pp. 879–990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, M. J., Nawrot, R., Schulman, S., and Vanderberg, J. P., 1986, Plasmodium berghei sporozoite invasion is blocked in vitro by sporozoite-immobilizing antibodies, Infect. Immun. 51:859–864.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stürchler, D., Berger, R., Etlinger, H., Matile, H., Pink, R., Schlumbom, and Just, M., 1989, Effects of interferons on immune response to a synthetic peptide malaria sporozoite vaccine in non-immune adults, Vaccine 7:457–461.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suh, W.-K., Cohen-Doyle, M. F., Fruh, K., Wang, K., Peterson, P. A., and Williams, D. B., 1994, Interaction of MHC class I molecules with the transporter associated with antigen processing, Science 264:1322–1326.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swain, S. L., Weinberg, A. D., and English, M., 1990, CD4+ Tcell subsets: Lymphokine secretion of memory cells and of effector cells that develop from precursors in vitro, J. Immunol. 144:1788–1799.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swain, S. L., Bradley, L. M., Croft, M., Tonkonogy, S., Atkins, G., Weinberg, A. D., Duncan, D. D., Hedrick, S. M, Dutton, R. W., and Huston, G., 1991, Helper T-cell subsets: Phenotype, function and the role of lymphokines in regulating their development, Immunol. Rev. 123:115–144.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tai, J. Y., Vella, P., McLean, A. A., Woodhour, A. F., McAleer, W. J., Sha, A., Dennis-Sykes, C., and Hilleman, M. R., 1987, H. influenzae type b polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccine, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 184:154–161.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teh, L. C., Murphy, L. J., Huq, N. L., Surus, A. S., Friesen, H. G., Lazarus, L., and Chapman, G. E., 1987, Methionine oxidation in human growth hormone and human chorionic somatomammotropin. Effects on receptor binding and biological activities, J. Biol. Chem. 262:6472.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Terrell, T. G., and Green, J. D., 1993, Comparative pathology of recombinant murine interferon-g in mice and recombinant human interferon-g in cynomolgus monkeys, Int. Rev. Exp. Pathol. 34B:73–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsicopoulos, A., Hamid, Q., Varney, V., Ying, S., Moqbel, R., Durham, S. R., and Kay, B., 1992, Preferential messenger RNA suppression of Th 1-type cells (IFN-y+, IL-2+) in classical delayed-type (tuberculin) hypersensitivity reaction in human skin, J. Immunol. 148:2058–2061.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsutsui, H., Mizoguchi, Y, and Morisawa, S., 1991, There is no correlation between function and lymphokine production of HBs-antigen-specific human CD4(+)-cloned T cells, Scand. J. Immunol. 34:433–444.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban, J. F., Katona, I. M., Paul, W. E., and Finkelman, F. D., 1991, Interleukin 4 is important in protective immunity to a gastrointestinal nematode infection in mice, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:5513–5517.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urban, J. F., Madden, K. B., Svetic, A., Cheever, A., Trotta, P. P., Gause, W. C., Katona, I. M., and Finkelman, F. D., 1992, The importance of TH2 cytokines in protective immunity to nematodes, Immunol. Rev. 127:205–220.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Bleek, G. M., and Nathenson, S. G., 1990, Isolation of an endogenously processed immunodominant viral peptide from the class I H-2Kb molecule, Nature 348:213–216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Nest, G. A., Steimer, K. S., Haigwood, N. L., Burke, R. L., and Ott, G., 1992, Advanced adjuvant formulations for use with recombinant subunit vaccines, in: Vaccines 92, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, pp. 57–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Noort, J. M., Boon, J., Van der Drift, A. C. M., Wagenaar, J. P. A., Boot, A. M. H., and Goog, C. J. P., 1991, Antigen processing by endosomal proteases determines which sites on sperm-whale myoglobin are eventually recognized by T cells, Eur. J. Immunol. 21:1989–1996.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vidard, L., Rock, K. L., and Benacerraf, B., 1991, The generation of immunogenic peptides can be selectively increased or decreased by proteolytic enzyme inhibitors, J. Immunol. 147:1786–1791.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vingerhoets, J., Vanham, G., Kestens, L., Penne, G., Leroux-Roels, G., and Gigase, P., 1994, Deficient T-cell responses in non-responders to hepatitis B vaccination: Absence of TH1 cytokine production. Immunol. Lett. 39:163–168.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y.-C. J., and Hanson, M. A., 1988, Parenteral formulations of proteins and peptides. Stability and stabilizers, J. Parent er. Sci. Technol. 42(Suppl.):2–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wassilak, S. G. F., and Orenstein, W. A., 1988, Tetanus, in: Vaccines (S. A. Plotkin and E. A. Mortimer, eds.), Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 45–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster, R. G., 1968, The immune response to influenza virus: II. Effect of the route and schedule of vaccination on the quantity and avidity of antibodies, Immunology 14:29–37.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weibel, R. E., 1988, Mumps vaccine, in: Vaccines (S. A. Plotkin and E. A. Mortimer, eds.), Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 223–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg, A., and Merigan, T. C., 1988, Recombinant interleukin-2 as an adjuvant for vaccine induced protection, J. Immunol. 140:294–299.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Westblom, T. U., Gudipati, S., DeRousse, C., Midkiff, B. R., and Belshe, R. B., 1994, Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine: Effect of dose and vaccination schedule, J. Infect. Dis. 169:996–1001.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wiedermann, G., Ambrosch, F., Kremsner, P., Kunz, C., Hauser, P., Simoen, E., André, F., and Safary, A., 1987a, Reactogenicity and immunogenicity of different lots of a yeast-derived hepatitis B vaccine, Postgrad. Med. J. 63:109–112.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiedermann, G., Ambrosch, F., Kollaritsch, H., Hofmann, H., Kunz, C., Hondt, E. D., Delem, A., André, F. E., Safary, A., and Stephenne, J., 1987b, Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated hepatitis A candidate vaccine in healthy adult volunteers, Postgrad. Med. J. 63:109–112.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wikel, S. K., 1988, Immunological control of hematophagous arthropod vectors: Utilization of novel antigens, Vet. Parasitol. 29:235–264.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Willadsen, P., Eisemann, C. H., and Tellam, R. L., 1993, “Concealed” antigens: Expanding the range of immunological targets, Parasitol. Today 9:132–135.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, R. A., 1993, Immunity and immunoregulation in helminth infections, Curr. Opin. Immunol. 5:538–547.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, H. T., 1991, Nonenzymatic deamidation of asparaginyl and glutaminyl residues in proteins, CRC Cht. Rev. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 26:1–52.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J.-Y., Gardiner, B. H., Murphy, C. I., Seals, J. R., Kensil, C. H., Recchia, J., Beltz, G. A., Newman, G. W., and Newman, M. J., 1992, Saponin adjuvant enhancement of antigen-specific immune responses to an experimental HIV-1 vaccine, J. Immunol. 148:1519–1525.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamamura, M., Uyemura, K., Deans, R. J., Weinberg, K., Rea, T. H., Bloom, B. R., and Modlin, R. L., 1991, Defining protective responses to pathogens: Cytokine profiles in leprosy lesions, Science 254:277–279.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamamura, M., Wang, X.-H., Ahmen, J. D., Uyemura, K., Rea, T. H., Blom, B. R., and Modlin, R. L., 1992, Cytokine patterns of immunologically mediated tissue damage, J. Immunol. 149:1470–1475.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yanuck, M., Carbone, D. P., Pendleton, C. D., Tsukui, T., Winter, S. F., Minna, J. D., and Berzofsky, J. A., 1993, A mutant p53 tumor suppressor protein is a target for peptide-induced CD8+ cytotoxic T cells, Cancer Res. 53:3257–3261.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yin, X.-M., and Vitetta, E. S., 1992, The lineage relationship between virgin and memory B cells, Int. Immunol. 6:691–698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zangwill, K. M., Stout, R. W., Carlone, G. M., Pais, L., Harekeh, H., Mitchell, S., Wolfe, W. H., Blackwood, V., Plikaytis, B. D., and Wenger, J. D., 1994, Duration of antibody response after meningococcal Polysaccharide vaccination in US Air Force personnel, J. Infect. Dis. 169:847–852.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Newman, M.J., Powell, M.F. (1995). Immunological and Formulation Design Considerations for Subunit Vaccines. In: Powell, M.F., Newman, M.J. (eds) Vaccine Design. Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, vol 6. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1823-5_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1823-5_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-5737-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-1823-5

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics