Abstract
In the recent past, there has been an increasing demand for fish oil in the pharmaceutical industry, due to the findings of the health benefits provided by omega-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Fish oils are unique in the variety of fatty acids of which they are composed, and are an excellent source of the highly unsaturated C20 and C22 omega-3 fatty acids of medical interest. In the past, fish oil was mainly used as an important ingredient in aquaculture feeds and was also used in feeds for livestock, such as poultry and swine. Due to increasing awareness on the potential health beneficial roles of omega-3 fatty acids in humans, there has been an increasing interest in the use of fish oils for human consumption. The nutritional and physical properties of fish oil have made hardened fish oils an attractive constituent in the human diet. A wide range of food products containing fish oils have been launched over the past decade. The instability of EPA and DHA and the fishy odor have become major problems in incorporating long-chain omega-3 oils into food products. There is an established market for dietary supplements, as well as a developing market for food ingredients produced from fish oils and concentrates of fish oil. Increasing scientific evidence in the health beneficial roles of fish oil has led to a tremendous growth in its use in the pharmaceutical industry and it is expected to play a dominant role in the future.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aidos I (2002) Production of high-quality fish oil from herring byproducts. Ph. thesis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Ajiro K, Sawamura M, Ikeda K, Nara Y, Nishimura M, Ishida H, Seino Y, Yamori Y (2000) Beneficial effects of fish oil on glucose metabolism in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 27(5–6):412–415
Arterburn LM, Boswell KD, Koskelo EK, Kassner SL, Kelly C, Kyle DJ (2000) A combined subchronic (90-day) toxicity and neurotoxicity study of a single-cell source of docosahexaenoic acid triglyceride (DHASCO® oil). Food Chem Toxicol 38(1):35–49
Ashton I, Clements K, Barrow SE, Secombes CJ, Rowley AF (1994) Effects of dietary fatty acids on eicosanoid-generating capacity, fatty acid composition and chemotactic activity of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) leucocytes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1214(3):253–262
Barascu A, Besson P, Le Floch O, Bougnoux P, Jourdan M-L (2006) CDK1-cyclin B1 mediates the inhibition of proliferation induced by omega-3 fatty acids in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 38(2):196–208
Barlow SM, Young FVK (1988) New uses for fish oils. Food manufacture, Oct 1988, 75 pp
Belch JJF, Muir A (1998) n-6 and n-3 essential fatty acids in rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatic conditions. Proc Nutr Soc 57:563–569
Bimbo AP (1989) Fish oils: past and present food uses. J Am Oil Chem Soc 66:1717–1726
Bimbo AP (1990) In the USA. Oils Fats Int 4:46–49
Bimbo AP (1997) Menhaden oil: the GRAS petition from hell. Inform 8:1069–1075
Bimbo AP (1998) Guidelines for characterizing food-grade fish oils. Inform 9:473–483
Bimbo AP (2005) Rendering. In: Shahidi F (ed) Bailey’s industrial oil and fat products, 6th edn. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 57–102
Bimbo AP, Crowther JB (1991) Fish oils: processing beyond crude oil. Infofish Int 6:20–25
Bose AN, Ghosh SN, Yang CT, Mitra A (1991) Coastal aquaculture engineering. Chapman and Hall, New York, 361 pp
Bougnoux P (1999) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cancer. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2:121–126
Calviello G, Palozza P, Piccioni E, Maggiano N, Frattucci A, Franceschelli P, Bartoli GM (1998) Dietary supplementation with eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid inhibits growth of Morris hepatocarcinoma 3924A in rats: effects on proliferation and apoptosis. Int J Cancer 75:699–705
Connor WE (2000) Importance of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease. Am J Clin Nutr 71:171S–175S
Coutteau P, Ceulemans S, Halteren AV, Robles R (2002) Fishmeal and fish oil in aquafeeds. Int Aquafeed Dir Buy Guide 2002:20–24
Damude HG, Kinney AJ (2008) Engineering oilseeds to produce nutritional fatty acids. Physiol Plant 132(1):1–10
Das S, Paul BN, Sengupta J, Datta AK (2009) Beneficial effects of fish oil to human health: a review. Agr Rev 30(3):199–205
Deutch B (1995) Menstrual pain in Danish women correlated with low n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake. Eur J Clin Nutr 49:508–516
Dewsbury CE, Graham P, Darley CR (1989) Topical eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in the treatment of psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 120(4):581–584
EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ) (2010) Scientific opinion on fish oil for human consumption. Food hygiene, including rancidity. EFSA J 8(10):1874 (48 pp)
FAO (1986) FAO Fisheries department, fishery industries division, food and agriculture organization of the United Nations. The production of fish meal and oil. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 142, Chapter 1, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome, Italy
FAO (2002) Fisheries statistics, FAO. http://www.fao.org
FAO (2003) Globefish: fishmeal and fish oil update. FAO, Rome
FAO (2008) FAO fisheries department, fishery information, data and statistics unit. FishStat Plus: universal software for fishery statistical time series. Aquaculture production: quantities 1950–2006; aquaculture production: values 1984–2006; capture production: 1950–2006; commodities production and trade: 1950–2006; total production: 1970–2006. Version. 2.30
FAO (2010) Fisheries and aquaculture department, fishery statistical collections, fishery commodities and trade. http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/global-commodities-production/en. Accessed 14 Oct 2010
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2009) FishStat Plus: universal software for fishery statistical time series
Fishmeal Information Network (FIN) (2010) Fishmeal and fish oil figures, p. 4, [http://www.gafta.com/fin/pdfs/FACTSANDFIGURES.pdf]
Gallai V, Sarchielli P, Trequattrini A, Franceschini M, Floridi A, Firenze C, Alberti A, Di Benedetto D, Stragliotto E (1995) Cytokine secretion and eicosanoid production in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of MS patients undergoing dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Neuroimmunol 56:143–153
Garcia DJ (1998) Omega-3 long chain PUFA nutraceuticals. Food Technol 52:44–49
Heller JH, Heller MS, Springer S, Clarke E (1957) Squalene content of various shark livers. Nature 179:919–920
Holman RT (1998) The slow discovery of the importance of omega 3 essential fatty acids in human health. J Nutr 128(2S):427S–433S
Horrocks LA, Yeo YK (1999) Health benefits of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Pharmacol Res 40:211–225
IFFO (2001) International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organization. Fishmeal and oil – supplies and markets. Presentation to ground fish forum. http://www.iffo.org.uk/Supplies.pdf. Oct 2001
Innis SM (2007) Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. J Nutr 137:855–859
Iso H, Kobayashi M, Ishihara J, Sasaki S, Okada K, Kita Y, Kokubo Y, Tsugane S (2006) Intake of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among Japanese. Circulation 113(2):195–202
Jackson AJ (2007) Challenges and opportunities for the fishmeal and fish oil industry. Feed Technol Update 2:3–11
Jangaard PM (1986) Report no. 115, Program development, Fisheries Branch, Halifax, Nova Scotia
Jiang WG, Bryce RP, Horrobin DF (1998) Essential fatty acids: molecular and cellular basis of their anti-cancer action and clinical implications. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 27(3):179–209
Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ (2003) Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: new recommendations from the American Heart Association. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23:151–152
Kroes R, Schaefer EJ, Squire RA, Williams GM (2003) A review of the safety of DHA45-oil. Food Chem Toxicol 41(11):1433–1446
Kumar KV, Rao SM, Gayani R, Mohan IK, Naidu MUR (2000) Oxidant stress and essential fatty acids in patients with risk and established ARDS. Clin Chim Acta 298:111–120
Lai PB, Ross JA, Fearon KC, Anderson JD, Carter DC (1996) Cell cycle arrest and induction of apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells exposed to eicosapentaenoic acid in vitro. Br J Cancer 74(9):1375–1383
Lambertsen G, Holman RT (1963) Partial characterization of the hydrocarbons of herring oil. Acta Chem Scand 17:281–282
Mahéo K, Vibet S, Steghens JP, Dartigeas C, Lehman M, Bougnoux P, Goré J (2005) Differential sensitization of cancer cells to doxorubicin by DHA: a role for lipoperoxidation. Free Radic Biol Med 39:742–751
Mangold HK, Malins DC (1960) Fractionation of fats, oils, and waxes on thin layers of silicic acid. J Am Oil Chem Soc 37(8):383–385
McHugh MA, Krukonis VJ (1986) Supercritical fluid extraction: principles and practice. Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, MA. 1st edn Apr 1986. 2nd edn, Jan 1994, 512 pp
Miller MR, Nichols PD, Carter CG (2008) n-3 Oil sources for use in aquaculture – alternatives to the unsustainable harvest of wild fish. Nutr Res Rev 21(2):85–96
Mori TA, Beilin LJ, Burke V, Morris J, Ritchie J (1997) Interactions between dietary fat, fish, and fish oils and their effects on platelet function in men at risk of cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 17:279–286
Moyad MA (2005) An introduction to dietary/supplemental omega-3 fatty acids for general health and prevention: part II. Urol Oncol Semin Orig Invest 23:36–48
Mozaffarian D, Rimm EB (2006) Fish intake, contaminants, and human health: evaluating the risks and the benefits. J Am Med Assoc 296(15):1885–1899
Navarro-GarcÃa G, Pacheco-Aguilar R, Bringas-Alvarado L, Ortega-GarcÃa J (2004) Characterization of the lipid composition and natural antioxidants in the liver oil of Dasyatis brevis and Gymnura marmorata rays. Food Chem 87:89–96
Newton IS (1996) Food enrichment with long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Inform 7:169–177
Olsen Y, Otterstad O, Duarte CM (2008) Status and future perspectives of marine aquaculture. In: Holmer M, Black K, Duarte CM, Marbà N, Karakassis I (eds) Aquaculture in the ecosystem. Springer, Berlin
Opstvedt J (1985) Fish lipids in animal nutrition. IAFMM Technical Bulletin 22, International Association of Fish Meal Manufacturers, Hoval House, Mutton Lane, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6, 3AR, UK
Patterson CA (2008) Omega-3 fatty acids (marine derived) essential to human health. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. http://www.agr.gc.ca. Aug 2008
Pike IH (2005) Eco-efficiency in aquaculture: global catch of wild fish used in aquaculture. Int Aquafeed 8:38–40
Pike IH, Barlow SM (2003) Impact of fish farming on fish stocks. Fish Farm 26(1):14–16
Pike IH, Jackson A (2010) Fish oil: production and use now and in the future. Lipid Technol 22(3):59–61
Piñeiro CG, Casas M, Bañón R (2001) The deep-water fisheries exploited by Spanish fleets in the Northeast Atlantic: a review of the current status. Fish Res 51:311–320
Psota TL, Gebauer SK, Kris-Etherton P (2006) Dietary omega-3 fatty acid intake and cardiovascular risk. Am J Cardiol 98(4A):3i–18i
Rowland GG, McHughen A, Bhatty RS, MacKenzie SL, Taylor DC (1995) The application of chemical mutagenesis and biotechnology to the modification of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.). Euphytica 85(1–3):317–321
Schrooyen PMM, van der Meer R, De Kruif CG (2001) Microencapsulation: its application in nutrition. Proc Nutr Soc 60:475–479
Severus WE, Ahrens B, Stoll AL, Nemeroff CB (1999) Omega-3 fatty acids – the missing link? Arch Gen Psychiat 56:380–381
Shepherd CJ, Pike IH, Barlow SM (2005) Sustainable feed resources of marine origin. European Aquaculture Society Special Publication no. 35, Aquaculture Europe Jun 2005, pp 59–66
Silk MH, De Koning AJ (1964) Phospholipids of the South African pilchard (Sardina ocellata Jenyns). J Am Oil Chem Soc 41:619–622
Simopoulos AP (1991) Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and development. Am J Clin Nutr 54:438–463
Sinclair AJ, Begg D, Mathai M, Weisinger RS (2007) Omega 3 fatty acids and the brain: review of studies in depression. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 16:391–397
Stark KD, Park EJ, Maines VA, Holub BJ (2000) Effect of a fish-oil concentrate on serum lipids in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy in a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Am J Clin Nutr 72(2):389–394
Storlien LH, Kraegen EW, Chisholm DJ, Ford GL, Bruce DG, Pascoe WS (1987) Fish oil prevents insulin resistance induced by high-fat feeding in rats. Science 237(4817):885–888
Turchini GM, Torstensen BE, Ng WK (2009) Fish oil replacement in finfish nutrition. Rev Aquac 1:10–57
Uauy R, Valenzuela A (2000) Marine oils: the health benefits of n-3 fatty acids. Nutrition 16:680–684
van der Schacky C (2000) n-3 fatty acids and the prevention of coronary atherosclerosis. Am J Clin Nutr 71:224s–227s
Wirth M et al (1992) Symposium on omega-3 fatty acids: metabolism and biological effects. 15–19 Sept 1992, Oslo, Norway Abst. 158
Yazawa K (2001) Recent development of health foods enriched with DHA, EPA and DPA in Japan. World Rev Nutr Diet 88:249–252
Young FVK (1986) The chemical properties of crude fish oils for refiners and hydrogenators. Fish Oil Bulletin No. 18, June 1986
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rizliya, V., Mendis, E. (2014). Biological, Physical, and Chemical Properties of Fish Oil and Industrial Applications. In: Kim, SK. (eds) Seafood Processing By-Products. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9590-1_14
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9590-1_14
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-9589-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-9590-1
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)