Abstract
Situated between the Caspian and the Black Seas, the Caucasus mountain range is not a barrier but rather links the vast Eurasian Steppe in the north to Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Iran to the south through several important passes. Cultural connectivity and exchange have always been a significant feature of this region. Among the various materials that bear witness to these cultural interactions in the past, it is clear that metals and metallurgy played an important role. The beginnings of metallurgy in this region correspond to a technological and conceptual revolution that had important cultural implications. In order to understand the importance of metal to the ancient peoples of the Caucasus, the term “metallurgy” is used in its broadest sense: from the extraction of ore to the use and deposition (or recycling) of objects. The aim of this chapter is to explain the development of extractive and manufacturing metallurgies in the northern and southern Caucasus and highlight the cultural consequences of the appearance of this new technology. This study combines archaeological, geological and metallurgical data in order to provide a broad synthesis of both early and recent research into the prehistoric metallurgy of the Caucasus.
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Notes
- 1.
It is not clear, according to the publication, if it is a curved band or a bead.
- 2.
It is assumed (although unclear) that this is wt%.
- 3.
Unpublished data. Analyses carried out in the laboratory of the Deutsches Bergbau-Museum (Bochum), under the direction of A. Hauptmann and M. Prange.
- 4.
XRF (ISP 28) analysis carried out in the laboratory of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology (Bakou), under the direction of A. Gazanova.
- 5.
I sincerely thank C. Chataigner for her authorization to report on this important discovery.
- 6.
Unpublished Data. I sincerely thank B. Lyonnet and F. Gulyev for their authorization to present here first these very interesting discoveries.
- 7.
I would like to acknowledge M. Prange, Ü. Yalcin and A. Hauptmann for their support and advice during these analyses.
- 8.
It is assumed although unclear that this is wt%.
- 9.
Undated artefact.
- 10.
Undated axe-hammer.
- 11.
Possibly parts of bits for horses according to Munchaev 1975: 209, although this has been contested.
- 12.
As Chernykh (1966: 38) defined it, with Phase I corresponding more or less to the Majkop phase mentioned in this article and his Phase II to the Novosvobodnaja phase.
- 13.
According to which native copper was used first, then carbonaceous and oxides ores, and finally sulphidic copper ores.
- 14.
The 14C date proposed for this settlement varies by author. The sample (TB-4; 4835 ± 180 BP) provided a date of the metallurgical level, which Kavtaradze (1999: 73–74) calibrates to 3790–3373 cal. BCE (1σ). For Chernykh (CHERNYKH et al. 2000: 74–75) the same sample is a little earlier: 3900–3350 (1σ) and 4050–3100 (2σ) cal. BCE.
- 15.
According to 14C dates, cf. Kushnavera, 1994: 52 and Chernykh et al. 2000: 74–75.
- 16.
Tombs 1, 3, 4 and 5 are dated to the last quarter of the fourth millennium BCE; tomb 2 is not precisely dated but the excavators compared its material with those of the “Royal Tomb” at Arslantepe dated to 3000 BCE (Glonti et al. 2008: 154).
- 17.
14C date: 3081–2897 (1 σ), 3308–2879 (2 σ); Palumbi 2004: 115.
- 18.
We ignore the analytical method used; this percentage could correspond to surface segregation.
- 19.
Most scholars would define arsenical bronze as containing above 4–5 wt% As, although this is still much debated (e.g. Northover 1988; Lechtman 1996).
- 20.
The lack of sulphur is most likely due to the analytical methods used, which were often unable to detect sulphur.
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I would like to express here my warmest acknowledgments to B. Lyonnet for her critical reading of this text. I would also like to express my thanks to A. Lepers for her help in the translation and structuring of this paper.
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Courcier, A. (2014). Ancient Metallurgy in the Caucasus From the Sixth to the Third Millennium BCE. In: Roberts, B., Thornton, C. (eds) Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9017-3_22
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