Abstract
This paper develops an argument that certain cultural activity during the Northern Irish conflict was central to the conditions of possibility of the eventual political settlement. This argument is developed through a case study examination of the activities of the Field Day theatre company and its intellectual opponents. At a time when institutional politics was stultified and ineffectual, and when much ‘culture’ chose to ‘rise above’ the conflict, Field Day, through a self-conscious post-colonial ‘affective turn’ (the exploration of the sense of belonging) and an associated refusal to regard culture and politics as separable, became an archetype of attempts to artistically and intellectually embrace and yet transcend conflict issues. Contestation by intellectual opponents had the paradoxical effect of productively complexifying the imaginative terrain on questions of national, ethnic and political identity. The parallel political effect rendered possible was the re-conceptualization of what seemed the core and ineluctable constitutional question of British or Irish sovereignty, into the pragmatic question of what was constitutionally sufficient (both practically and symbolically) to allow people to feel either Irish or British in the same socio-political space. The wider argument generated from this local example is that the issues of cultural expression, as the matter of putting form to affect, must be central to transitional justice concerns. This is tied to the idea that transitional justice scholarship can somewhat avoid sterile oppositions between law-centred or interdisciplinary work by embracing the productive complication brought by a fulsome conceptualization of affective dimensions of justice that cut across and beyond politics and law.
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Notes
- 1.
Stewart Parker, Northern Irish playwright, author of numerous stage and television dramas through the 1980s, including commissioned work for Field Day Theatre Company, speaking in 1986. Died at the age of 47 in 1989. For quote and discussion see: Marilynn J. Richtarik, Acting Between the Lines: the Field Day Theatre Company and Irish cultural politics 1980–1984 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 7. Parker, probably because of his tragically early death, is one of the largely unsung heroes of Northern Irish cultural life and his contribution to the themes of this essay deserve detailed treatment in its own right. See generally Marilynn J. Richtarik, Stewart Parker: a life (Oxford: OUP, 2012).
- 2.
Homi Bhabha in the opening lines of The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994) puts the point in the following terms: ‘It is the trope of our times to locate the question of culture in the realm of the beyond.’
- 3.
For a situated discussion which complexifies the usual bi-lateral ‘two cultures’ analysis of the Northern Ireland social situation see Joseph Ruane and Jennifer Todd, The Dynamics of Conflict in Northern Ireland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
- 4.
Prompted by the decision to remove the Union (UK) flag from flying above Belfast City Hall on all but certain designated occasions (a decision made by the city councilors on the grounds of promoting ‘inclusivity’ of different traditions) street protests and riots, in the name of ‘defending our culture’ have continued around Northern Ireland for two weeks at the time of writing; 18th December, 2012.
- 5.
The ‘flag protests’ have been dealt with at great length in various local and national newspapers, in particular the daily Belfast Telegraph (which maintains a general online archive of its journalism) http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/
- 6.
See, for example, Paul Bew, The Making and Remaking of the Good Friday Agreement (Dublin: Liffey Press, 2007); Eamonn Mallie and David Mc Kittrick, The Fight for Peace: the secret story behind the Irish Peace Process (London: Heinemann, 1996); George Mitchell, Making Peace (London: Heinemann, 1999); Jonathan Powell, Great Hatred, Little Room: making peace in Northern Ireland (London: Bodley Head, 2008).
- 7.
For a related argument specifically focused on poetry and biopolitics see Eugene McNamee, “The Government of the Tongue”, Law and Literature 14.3 (2002); 427–461.
- 8.
This debate has been current for several years now in the pages of the International Journal of Transitional Justice and is particularly notable in the numerous editorials dealing either directly or indirectly with the issue (see Rama Mani IJTJ 2 (2009): 253–265; Kimberly Theidon, IJTJ 3 (2009) 295–300; Juan E. Mendez IJTJ 3 (2009) 157–162; Harvey M. Weinstein IJTJ 5 (2011) 1–10; Lucy Hovil and Moses Okello IJTJ 5 (2011) 333–344. For a limited selection of important contributions at other sites, see Paige Arthur, “How transitions re-shaped Human Rights: a conceptual history of TJ” Human Rights Quarterly 31 (2009): 321–367; Kieran McEvoy, “Beyond Legalism: towards a thicker conception of TJ” Journal of Law and Society 34.4 (2007): 411–440; David P. Forsythe, “Transitional Justice: the quest for theory to inform policy” International Studies Review 13 (2011): 554–578. See in particular Christine Bell, “Transitional Justice, Interdisciplinarity and the State of the ‘Field’ or ‘Non-Field’” The International Journal of Transitional Justice 3 (2009): 5–27; this work will be discussed in more detail below.
- 9.
The notion of necessary circularity in transitional justice is phrased as follows by Ruti Teitel in her seminal text Transitional Justice Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000 p6: ‘In its ordinary social function, law provides order and stability, but in extraordinary periods of political upheaval, law maintains order even as it enables transformation… law is alternately constituted by and constitutive of, the transition’. For insightful comment on literary justice see Siphiwe Dube ‘Transitional Justice beyond the Normative: towards a literary theory of political transitions’, IJTJ, 2011.
- 10.
See note 8 above, particularly Theidon’s editorial and the collection of articles in that issue of IJTJ. See also Hovil and Okello editorial, and Forsythe, “Transitional Justice: the quest for theory to inform policy”.
- 11.
‘Field Day’ is in part a pun on the surnames of Friel and Rea; for an account of the foundation of Field Day see Richtarik Acting Between the Lines, 10. Friel, through such plays as Philadelphia Here I Come, Faith Healer and Aristocrats had, by the time of Field Day, already earned a reputation as ‘The Irish Chekhov’. For discussion of his career see Scott Boltwood Brian Friel, Ireland, and The North (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2007).
- 12.
The classic analytic text on the entwining of Irish culture, politics and literary form is Declan Kiberd Inventing Ireland: The Literature of the Modern Nation (London: Vintage, 1996). For a further introduction to relevant literature on the ‘Celtic Twilight’ and its influence on Irish nationalism, see David Dwan, The Great Community: Culture and Nationalism in Ireland, (Dublin: Field Day, 2008).
- 13.
Paul Muldoon To Ireland, I (Oxford: OUP, 2000) 4.
- 14.
For an interesting analysis of Yeats’ Modernism and his vision of Irish exceptionalism in this regard (ie; remaining essentially uncorrupted and pre-Modern) see Dwan, The Great Community. In the introduction to Our Irish Theatre (London: Capricorn, 1965) an essay written in 1913 reviewing the early progress of Yeats’ and Gregory’s project of a national theatre, Lady Gregory recalls the initial mission statement; ‘We propose to have performed in Dublin in the spring of every year certain Celtic and Irish plays, which whatever their degree of excellence will be written with a high ambition, and so build up a Celtic and Irish school of dramatic literature. We hope to find in Ireland an uncorrupted and imaginative audience trained to listen by its passion for oratory, and believe that our desire to bring upon the stage the deeper thoughts and emotions of Ireland will ensure for us a tolerant welcome…’.
- 15.
See Richtarik, Acting Between the Lines. See also Richard Kirkland, Literature and Culture in Northern Ireland Since 1965: Moments of Danger (London: Longman, 1996), especially Chap. 5 ‘Nothing Left but the Sense of Exhaustion: Field-Day and Counter-hegemony’. See further Kiberd Inventing Ireland, especially section 11 ‘Recovery and Renewal’.
- 16.
For discussions on Irish writing and ironic distance see Seamus Heaney, The Place of Writing, (Atlanta: Emory University Scholars Press, 1989).
- 17.
The proximity (and links) of Friel’s writing to Heideggerean linguistic and ontological philosophy is explored in Richard Kearney Transitions (Dublin: Wolfhound Press, 1988) Chap. 6 ‘The language plays of Brian Friel’.
- 18.
Richtarik, Acting Between the Lines, 12. Interesting cross-themes of homeliness could be drawn out from works on transitional justice from below; see, for example, Ciaran McEvoy and Lorna McGregor, Transitional Justice from Below: grass-roots activism and the struggle for change (Oxford: Hart, 2008); McEvoy “Beyond Legalism”.
- 19.
Various writers have noted the links between the ideas expressed in Friel’s ‘Translations’ and the work of George Steiner, particularly in After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation (Oxford: OUP, 1975). See, for example, Helen Lojek “Brian Friel’s Plays and George Steiner’s Linguistics: Translating the Irish”, Contemporary Literature 35.1(1994); 83–99, Francis C. McGrath “Irish Babel: Brian Friel’s ‘Translations’ and George Steiner’s ‘After Babel’” Comparative Drama 23.1 (1989) 31–49.
- 20.
Heaney was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1995 (for ‘works of lyrical beauty and ethical depth…’) but already in 1980 was extremely well-known throughout the English-speaking world. His first collection Death of a Naturalist (London: Faber) was published to wide critical acclaim in 1966. Deane came to general public prominence largely through his work with Field Day, and went on to write the 1996 Booker Prize shortlisted novel Reading in the Dark. Paulin went on to become Professor of Poetry at Oxford. Rea went on to enjoy a very successful international stage, television and cinema career.
- 21.
Edward Said, Frederic Jameson and Terry Eagleton all wrote pamphlets for the group (respectively ‘Yeats and Decolonisation’, ‘Modernism and Imperialism’ and ‘Nationalism, Irony and Commitment’), which were published together as the volume Nationalism, Colonialism and Literature (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990).
- 22.
Whether or not, as has been claimed, Deane became the chief ideologue of the group in the sense that he dictated its overall direction, or whether he simply assumed a mantle of spokesperson that none of the other directors cared to don (and perhaps over-reached himself in presenting himself as the voice of a collective that was always more internally disparate in its views) is a moot point. The point is well discussed in ‘Prologue: The Beginnings’ in Carmen Szabo, Clearing the Ground: The Field Day Theatre Company and the Construction of Irish Identities, (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007).
- 23.
Richard Kearney, for example, analyses Translations together with Faith Healer and The Communication Cord as Friel’s coming to terms with ‘the twin modern crises of identity and language.’ Kearney, Transitions, 123.
- 24.
Quoted in Richtarik, Acting Between the Lines, 32.
- 25.
Richtarik, Acting Between the Lines, 38–50.
- 26.
Richtarik, Acting Between the Lines, 40.
- 27.
Such an approach links in particular to the ongoing debates on ‘justice’ and/versus ‘reconciliation’. See, for example, the series of essays in Scott Veitch, ed., Law and the Politics of Reconciliation (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007).
- 28.
See for example Edna Longley’s critique in “Poetry and Politics in Northern Ireland”, The Crane Bag 9 (1985) 26–41.
- 29.
In another of his most renowned works ‘Faith Healer’, Friel has the memory of the same sequence of events related by the three central characters present. Each produces an account barely recognisable to that of the others. Brian Friel, Faith Healer (London: Faber and Faber, 2001).
- 30.
W.B. Yeats in reference to the Easter I916 ‘Rising’ (violent insurrection) wrote: ‘All changed, changed utterly/A terrible beauty is born…’ from “Easter 1916” in W.B. Yeats: Selected Poems (London: Penguin, 2000).
- 31.
Quoted in Szabo Clearing The Ground, 10.
- 32.
There are interesting comparisons here to the arguments on courts (with attendant iconography and iconology) as participative democratic spaces presented in Judith Resnik and Denis Curtis, Representing Justice: Invention, Controversy, and Rights in City-States and Democratic Courtrooms (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011).
- 33.
Here there are evident links to the theorization (and practical study) of ‘transitional justice from below’: see, for example: Anna Erikkson, “A Bottom-Up Approach to Transformative Justice in Northern Ireland” International Journal of Transitional Justice 3 (2009) 301–320; McEvoy and McGregor Transitional Justice from Below.
- 34.
A wonderful historical irony is that on the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Dublin in 2011 Heaney was seated at her left hand and, at least on this occasion, did indeed raise his glass to toast the Queen.
- 35.
The distinction maps more or less onto the ‘savages’ and ‘saviours’ of Makau Mutua, “Savages, Victims and Saviours: The Metaphor of Human Rights”, Harvard International Law Journal, 42, (Winter 2001): 21. See also for comparison Bradin Cormack, A Power to do Justice: Jurisdiction, English Literature and the Rise of the Common Law, 1509–1625 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2007), especially Chap. 3 “Inconveniencing the Irish: custom, allegory and the Common Law in Spencer’s Ireland.”
- 36.
The first six pamphlets mentioned here are collected in the volume Ireland’s Field Day, Hutchinson, London 1985; the 4th, 5th and 6th pamphlets are ‘Heroic Styles: the tradition of an idea’ by Seamus Deane, ‘Myth and Motherland’ by Richard Kearney, and ‘Anglo-Irish Attitudes’ by Declan Kiberd.
- 37.
Field Day Pamphlets: No. 7, "The Whole Protestant Community" by Terence Brown; No. 8 "Watchmen in Sion" by Marianne Elliot; No. 9 "Liberty and Authority in Ireland" by Robert McCartney.
- 38.
The modern incarnation of the phrase dates to the opening editorial of The Crane Bag. In some ways a fore-runner/fellow-traveller to Field Day, this was a cultural journal published in Dublin between 1977 and 1985 under the editorship of Mark Patrick Hederman and Richard Kearney and with definite editorial notions of the political import of culture. First five volumes published as a collected volume The Crane Bag Book of Irish Studies 1977–1981 (Dublin: Blackwater Press, 1982); second four volumes published as The Crane Bag Book of Irish Studies 1982–1985 (Dublin: Blackwater Press, 1985).
- 39.
See Richtarik, Acting Between the Lines, 239–255 for reference to other prominent writers adopting similar argumentative positions, for example John Wilson-Foster, Gerard Dawe, Frank McGuinness and Fintan O’Toole.
- 40.
For a series of references see Richtarik Acting Between the Lines, 244–255, and Szabo Clearing the Ground, “conclusion”.
- 41.
Edna Longley, The Living Stream; literature and revisionism in Ireland, (Newcastle: Bloodaxe Books, 1994).
- 42.
Longley, The Living Stream, 23. The self-reference is to her earlier essay “Poetry and Politics in Northern Ireland”.
- 43.
In the essay From Cathleen to Anorexia: The Breakdown of Irelands (Dublin: Attic Press, 1990) Longley’s attack on Field Day is in part structured around an idea of feminism in contrast to the perceived ‘macho’ qualities of Field Day. Field Day in fact acknowledged the error of omission of women’s voices and set about the task of producing complementary volumes which eventually emerged in 2005: Angela Bourke ed. The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing Volumes IV and V: Irish Women's Writing and Tradition: v. 4 and 5 Cork: Cork University Press, 2005.
- 44.
Friel’s play Dancing at Lughnasa was offered to The Abbey theatre Dublin rather than Field Day and premiered in 1990. Friel formally resigned from the Field Day Board in 1994.
- 45.
This is clear from Longley’s essay, “Poetry and Politics in Northern Ireland”.
- 46.
This is a neat inversion of the animating argument of the Law and Literature movement that legal (and political) texts deserve analysis as forms of literature. For a recent major contribution in this field see Desmond Manderson, Kangaroo Courts and the Rule of Law: The Legacy of Modernism (London: Routledge, 2012). See also Cormack, A Power to do Justice.
- 47.
The Belfast Agreement (also known as ‘Good Friday Agreement’ after the signing date) is a composite name for the ‘British-Irish Agreement’ and the ‘Multi-Party Agreement’ (the former in effect assenting to and institutionalizing in international law the latter agreement between local politicians). The Agreement therefore, while undoubtedly constitutional, is not a constitution since Northern Ireland does not have the quality of a State. For an account of the legal delicacies (that reflect political ones) see Austen Morgan, The Belfast Agreement : a practical legal analysis (London: The Belfast Press, 2000). Insofar as the Agreement sets in place mechanisms of review (and thus is self-consciously ‘transitional’) it bears comparison to the Interim Constitution of South Africa of 1993.
- 48.
This emphasis on language and the symbolic centrality of naming recalls the Field Day focus, particularly as expressed in ‘Translations’, discussed above.
- 49.
For an overview see Mallie and McKittrick, The Fight for Peace, 20–28. ‘ArmaLite’ is a brand named assault rifle. The quote is attributed to Danny Morrison, Sinn Fein director of publicity, speaking at the Sinn Fein Ard-Fheis (Annual Convention) 1981.
- 50.
For a related argument about a politics of the imaginary focused on memorialization see Eugene McNamee “Eye-Witness: memorializing humanity in Steve McQueen’s Hunger” International Journal of Law in Context 5 (2009) 281–294.
- 51.
It would be certainly possible to attempt a sociological analysis of the direct links from Field Day (and Crane Bag) protagonists such as Friel, Deane, Heaney and Kearney to developments within the thought of John Hume as leader of the SDLP who ‘brought in from the cold’ Gerry Adams and the republican movement, to the reconceptualizations within republican thought which allowed for eventual political accommodation. For work in this vein see John Hume Personal Views (Dublin: Town House, 1996); Barry White John Hume (Belfast: Blackstaff, 1984). The aim here, however, is to remain at a more abstract level dealing with shifts in ideas rather than individual changes of mind.
- 52.
A further dynamic of the political treatment of culture that has emerged since the Agreement plays to the cross-cutting theme of class within Northern Irish society, and that is the consolidation of a long term institutional and conceptual distinction between ‘arts’ and ‘community arts’. Both these forms of art are government funded indirectly through the Arts Council of Northern Ireland, and sometimes directly in terms of specific programme grants (particularly for community arts and community festivals) and capital project allocation (particularly for the traditional arts infrastructural provision in terms of theatre and music venues) from DCAL. The community arts sector is supported through a number of local NGOs (the main umbrella group being ‘The Community Arts Partnership’) and the traditional arts sector populated by a wide variety of organizations, with the theatre sector particularly prominent, there being about a dozen Northern Ireland based professional theatre companies. There seems to have been an implicit acceptance that this distinction between community arts and ‘arts’ is somehow fundamental and the institutional (and funding) structure has developed to support both, with the division rarely troubled from either side.
- 53.
Jennifer Todd and Joseph Ruane, “From ‘A Shared Future’ to ‘Cohesion, Sharing and Integration’: An analysis of Northern Ireland’s Framework Documents” Institute for British Irish Studies (IBIS), University College Dublin, (2010), 3. ‘Cohesion, Sharing and Integration’ following adverse critical reaction, was re-opened for further consultation in 2010 and at the time of writing, December 2012, remains under review and unpublished in revised form.
- 54.
Not to say that political comment doesn’t happen through culture, but the sense of direct link to political change has been lost in favour of the professional apparatus designed to operationalize change at the behest of government; the ground has been settled.
- 55.
Such growth is succinctly and powerfully reviewed in Bell, “State of the Field”.
- 56.
Bell, “State of the Field”, 24.
- 57.
Bell, “State of the Field” 27.
- 58.
For the development of these ideas see Christine Bell, On the Law of Peace, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), especially Chaps. 12 and 14, ‘The New Law of Transitional Justice’ and ‘Lex Pacificatoria: marriage of heaven and hell’ (the metaphor of ‘marriage of heaven and hell’ is borrowed from William Blakes eponymous work of 1790, itself usually read as a commentary on the flowering of the Enlightenment in the French revolution.) For a reading of the post-revolutionary restoration in France as a paradigm of historical transitional justice see Jon Elster, Closing the Books: Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), Chap. 2, “The French restorations in 1814 and 1815”.
- 59.
For a helpful (in this context) historical sociology of love and marriage see Niklas Luhmann Love as Passion: the codification of intimacy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999).
- 60.
There are some excellent (if rare) examples of work developing this theme of the law/literature intersection with specific reference to Transitional Justice. See, for example: Siphiwe Ignatius Dube “Transitional Justice Beyond the Normative” International Journal of Transitional Justice 5(2011) 177–197; Magdalena Zolkos “The Time That Was Broken, The Home That Was Razed: deconstructing Slavenka Drakulic’s storytelling about Yugoslav war crimes” International Journal of Transitional Justice 2 (2008) 214–226.
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Acknowledgments
Thanks to Peter Rush, the anonymous reviewers, and to Fionnuala Ni Aolain and Bill Rolston for their helpful comments on an earlier draft.
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McNamee, E. (2014). Fields of Opportunity: Cultural Invention and ‘The New Northern Ireland’. In: Rush, P., Simić, O. (eds) The Arts of Transitional Justice. Springer Series in Transitional Justice, vol 6. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8385-4_1
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