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Photons — from source to detector

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Observing Photons in Space

Part of the book series: ISSI Scientific Report Series ((ISSI,volume 9))

Abstract

The central theme of the book “Observing Photons in Space” is the detection and characterization of photons with instruments aboard spacecraft. This chapter presents a global overview of the fundamental processes that accompany photons all the way from their origin in the source region to their detection in our instruments. The radiation of the Sun is taken as example in some cases and is treated in more detail.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    This and other constants are taken from CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2006 (Mohr et al 2008), or when available from 2010 CODATA at http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/constants.

  2. 2.

    In the following discussion, the notations ν and λ will be used to simplify the equations, unless emphasis is placed on the fact that mean values are considered in special cases.

  3. 3.

    Follows from the definition of the SI base unit “metre”(BIPM 2006).

  4. 4.

    A zero mass follows from the special theory of relativity and a speed of light in vacuum constant for all frequencies. Various methods have been used to constrain the photon mass to m ν  < 10−49 kg (cf., Amsler et al 2008, Goldhaber and Nieto 1971). These authors also discuss the consequences of a finite mass for the existence of longitudinal electromagnetic waves.

  5. 5.

    Einstein and Stern (1913) argued in favour of a zero-point energy h ν∕2 of a resonator, first introduced by Planck (1909). The zero-point energy of the electromagnetic field causes, for instance, the Casimir forces (cf., Casimir 1949; Mohideen and Roy 1998).

  6. 6.

    For more details see Chapter 32 (Fröhlich 2013).

  7. 7.

    In equations related to Doppler shifts, there is a danger of confusing the frequency symbol, ν, with the relative speed between the inertial systems, v. Therefore, a subscript is used for v in all these cases. Note that \(\vert v_{\mathrm{S}}\vert <c_{0}\), cf., page 22.

  8. 8.

    This situation was considered by Fermi (1932) for the non-relativistic case.

  9. 9.

    The details of the transfer of the momentum from the absorbing or emitting systems—usually atomic particles—to the detector device require quantum-mechanical considerations beyond the scope of this chapter (cf., Dicke 1953; Mössbauer 1958).

  10. 10.

    A typographical error in Einstein’s equation has been corrected in Equation 2.28.

  11. 11.

    Note that certain materials exhibit a double refraction.

  12. 12.

    Fresnel’s formulas using a complex index of refraction are given in Chapter 9 (Lemaire et al 2013).

  13. 13.

    Telescopes usually collect radiation in the far-field region of a source, where the diffraction limit is of importance. In the near-field region, however, focusing beyond this limit is possible (cf., e.g., Lerosey et al 2007).

  14. 14.

    For completeness it should be mentioned that non-demolition measurements of single photons were accomplished (Nogues et al 1999), as well as electric field measurements at sub-photon levels (Brune et al 1994; Foster et al 2002).

  15. 15.

    Note that time-delayed photo effects have been observed for semi-transparent photocathodes that are not in line with Equation 2.59 (Billard and Burns 1983).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. MPS—Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany

    Klaus Wilhelm

  2. PMOD / WRC—Physikalisch-Meteorologisches Observatorium Davos/World Radiation Center, Davos, Switzerland

    Claus Fröhlich

Authors
  1. Klaus Wilhelm
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  2. Claus Fröhlich
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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen PSI, Switzerland

    Martin C. E. Huber , Anuschka Pauluhn  & Alex Zehnder ,  & 

  2. Mullard Space Science Lab, University College London, Dorking, Surrey, UK

    J. Len Culhane

  3. Nightsen, Inc., Tiverton, Rhode Island, USA

    J. Gethyn Timothy

  4. Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany

    Klaus Wilhelm

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Wilhelm, K., Fröhlich, C. (2013). Photons — from source to detector. In: Huber, M.C.E., Pauluhn, A., Culhane, J.L., Timothy, J.G., Wilhelm, K., Zehnder, A. (eds) Observing Photons in Space. ISSI Scientific Report Series, vol 9. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7804-1_2

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7804-1_2

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