Abstract
The physics of the atomic nucleus becomes a primary concern of physicists. One Russian and two Americans show how the recent quantum mechanics can explain an enigma in α-decay: the Geige-Nuttall law. A Frenchman discovers that α-particles emitted by radioactive substances do not all have the same velocity.
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Notes
- 1.
See p. 214.
- 2.
See p. 58.
- 3.
ThC is the isotope 212 of bismuth, 212 83Bi.
- 4.
See p. 160.
- 5.
See p. 58.
- 6.
See p. 204.
- 7.
Namely, three isotopes of bismuth, 214 83Bi, 212 83Bi, and 211 83Bi.
- 8.
The Zeeman effect is a splitting of atomic spectral lines when the atom is subject to an external magnetic field. The reason is that the magnetic field modifies the motion of the electrons in the atom. See p. 101.
- 9.
See p. 213.
- 10.
Recall that the chemical measurements yield relative values of the atomic masses: 8 g of oxygen and 1 g of hydrogen are required to form 9 g of water. Since one knows that each molecule of water contains one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms, one deduces that the oxygen atom is 16 times heavier than the hydrogen atom. With similar methods, the relative masses of other atoms can be determined.
- 11.
This is a molecule consisting of two hydrogen nuclei bound by a single electron. It is produced when an ordinary hydrogen molecule loses one of its electrons.
- 12.
The same principle is applied when alcohol is obtained from the distillation of wine: the alcohol is lighter, and it evaporates first.
- 13.
See p. 216.
- 14.
See p. 197.
- 15.
See p. 192.
- 16.
The École Municipale de Physique et de Chimie Industrielle was founded in 1882. Its name was changed to École Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielle (ESPCI) in 1948.
- 17.
We respect the original notation. Today, we would write 4.7 cm.
- 18.
An electromagnetic field does not really eliminate electrons. Instead, it deviates them by making them follow circular trajectories which have very small radii in view of the small electron mass. The electrons continue going round and round and therefore remain close to their starting point. They do not reach detectors placed further away.
- 19.
In 1932 the mass unit for atoms was 1/16 of the mass of oxygen, which was taken as reference.
- 20.
Thorium C” is the isotope 208 of thallium, which today is denoted as 208Tl.
- 21.
The value accepted today is 1.0089856 in units of that time equal to 1/16 of the mass of oxygen.
- 22.
See p. 217.
- 23.
At that time, the atomic mass unit was 1/16 of the mass of oxygen.
- 24.
See p. 215.
- 25.
See p. 136.
- 26.
See p. 199.
- 27.
See p. 116.
- 28.
See p. 18.
- 29.
See p. 20.
- 30.
See p. 26.
- 31.
Today’s data make it “only” 12.7 times smaller.
- 32.
The CNRS stands for Centre National de Recherche Scientifique. It is one of the major research organizations in France.
- 33.
See p. 27.
- 34.
See p. 5.
- 35.
See p. 31.
- 36.
In 1941, Christian Møller coined the word “nucleon” to designate both protons and neutrons, see p. 425.
- 37.
See p. 209.
- 38.
Indeed, the earth contains some uranium and therefore radium and therefore also radon, the residue of the disintegration of radium. Since radon is a gas, it is continuously escaping from the earth. There is more of it in granitic regions which are richer in uranium. The radioactive half-life of radon is 3.8 days.
- 39.
See p. 212.
- 40.
See p. 206.
- 41.
See page 209.
- 42.
See p. 135.
- 43.
See p. 215.
- 44.
The protons are 1,836 times heavier than electrons, and the curvature of their trajectory is therefore 1,836 times smaller.
- 45.
See p. 22.
- 46.
See p. 188.
- 47.
See p. 158.
- 48.
See p. 3.
- 49.
Wideröe was Norwegian, Tuve and Lawrence had Norwegian parents or grandparents, and Ising was Swedish. Scandinavia played a key role in the construction of the first accelerators!
- 50.
It was a letter to the editor, signed by E. Lawrence and S. Livingston. Urgent communications could be sent to the journal provided they were short. They were published fast, within about 1 month, whereas 6 months were often required for the publication of a full-fledged article.
Similar fast publications were accepted by Nature in England, by Physikalische Zeitschrift and Naturwissenschaften in Germany, and by the Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences in France.
- 51.
We did not wish to modify the text of Lawrence who mentions millions of volts instead of electron volts. It is an abuse which physicists often indulge in (see the word in the Glossary).
- 52.
See p. 27.
- 53.
See p. 34.
- 54.
See p. 56.
- 55.
See p. 9.
- 56.
The highest competitive examination for teachers in France.
- 57.
See p. 26.
- 58.
Respectively, 13 and 14 for aluminum, 2 and 2 for the α -particle, and 14 and 16 for the isotope 30 of silicon.
- 59.
Ionized hydrogen atoms, namely, protons, were still occasionally called H-rays at the time.
- 60.
These are Wilson cloud chamber photographs.
- 61.
See p. 57.
- 62.
This method, which is widely used in chemistry and in biology, is called today the “labelled molecules” or “tracer” method.
- 63.
See p. 155.
- 64.
Later it was found that “radium D” was the isotope 210 of lead, which today is denoted as 82 210Pb.
- 65.
See p. 132.
- 66.
See p. 215.
- 67.
See p. 9.
- 68.
See p. 177 to 185.
- 69.
See p. 217.
- 70.
See p. 202.
- 71.
See p. 78.
- 72.
They did this by fixing the substance to a fast rotating disc. The latter was then bombarded tangentially by neutrons. This enabled them to vary the relative velocity of the neutrons and the target nuclei within a certain range.
- 73.
At a temperature of 20∘C, thermal neutrons have velocities ranging from about 1000 to 4000 m/s, the average velocity being 2200 m/s. However, neutrons emitted by neutron sources (such as the beryllium + radon source used by Fermi) have energies of several million electron volts (MeV). For example, 5-MeV neutrons have velocities of 31 000 km/s. They travel more than a thousand times faster than thermal neutrons.
- 74.
See p. 53.
- 75.
See p. 136.
- 76.
See p. 183.
- 77.
See p. 82.
- 78.
Consider a proton interacting with a neutron. The proton begins by emitting a quantum (today, we would say “a particle”). The system then consists of the proton and the neutron with, in addition, the quantum (the particle) of mass M, which increases the energy of the system by the amount ΔE = Mc 2 where c is the speed of light. According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, this change of energy cannot last longer than the time interval \(\Delta t = \hslash /\Delta E = \hslash /M{c}^{2}\) where ℏ is Planck’s constant h divided by 2π. This means that the quantum must be absorbed by the neutron at a time no later than Δt. During this time, the exchanged quantum cannot travel a distance greater than \(R = c\Delta t = \hslash /Mc\) because it cannot travel faster than light. The interaction between the proton and the neutron therefore has a range of the order of ℏ ∕ Mc which decreases as the mass of the exchanged quantum (particle) increases.
- 79.
However, today, we know that the neutron has a magnetic moment in spite of having zero electric charge. The magnetic moment of the neutron allows it to interact with a magnetic field.
- 80.
See p. 92.
- 81.
See p. 100 for Franck and Hertz experiment.
- 82.
See p. 56.
- 83.
See p. 34.
- 84.
See p. 93.
- 85.
For those who are curious to see the formula, here it is:
$$\sigma= {\Lambda }^{2}\pi S \frac{{\Gamma }_{s}\Gamma } {{\left (\nu- {\nu }_{0}\right )}^{2} + {\Gamma }^{2}}$$In this formula, σ is the cross section which is proportional to the probability of the process, Λ and S are constants, ν is the energy of the neutron, ν0 is the energy at which the resonance occurs, Γ is the width of the resonance which is the range of energies at which the process can occur with a high probability, and Γ s is proportional to the probability for the system to decay in certain fashion after the neutron capture.
- 86.
But Bohr suggests that the same occurs when other particles, such as α-particles, come into contact with the nucleus.
- 87.
Bohr uses the word “conservative,” which simply means that energy is conserved.
- 88.
See p. 107.
- 89.
See p. 40.
- 90.
See p. 36.
- 91.
Mark Oliphant was born in 1901 in Adelaide, Australia. In 1927, he joined Rutherford at the Cavendish Laboratory, where he received a PhD in 1929 and began nuclear research with Rutherford. In 1937, he became professor of Physics at Birmingham, and in 1939, he began to build a 60-inch cyclotron with the help of Ernest Lawrence. During the Second World War, he worked on radar and joined the Manhattan Project. After the war, he became a founding member of the Pugwash Movement. He returned to Australia in 1950 and became the research director of the Australian National University. He died in 2000.
- 92.
See p. 12.
- 93.
See p. 28.
- 94.
See p. 199.
- 95.
See p. 196.
- 96.
See p. 100.
- 97.
The book Nuclear forces, by David Brink (Pergamon Press, 1965), gives a very lucid account of the history and development of nuclear forces in the period 1932–1952. It contains a collection of 14 original papers by Bohr, Heisenberg, Wigner, Majorana, Yukawa, etc., and an introduction in which the ideas underlying the papers are discussed.
- 98.
See p. 10.
- 99.
For those who are curious, the exact formula for the quadrupole moment of a nucleus shaped as an ellipsoid, the principal axes of which are a and b, is \(Q = \frac{Ze} {10} ({a}^{2} - {b}^{2})\), where Z is the number of electric charges (therefore, the number of protons) and e the elementary electric charge, that is, the electric charge of the proton.
- 100.
See p. 10.
- 101.
See p. 105.
- 102.
See p. 87.
- 103.
This is what Hahn and Meitner call eka-iodine because it is a hole in the periodic table, which corresponds to a halogen element which is close to iodine for its chemical properties and which will not be observed before 1940. The prefix eka means 1 in Sanskrit, and it was used for the first time by Mendeleev in 1872 when he predicted elements which were not known at his time and for which he left blank positions in the periodic table. He gave them provisional names: eka-aluminum, eka-boron, and eka-silicon. These elements were discovered later: gallium in 1875, scandium in 1879, and germanium in 1886. By calling eka-aluminum the predicted element, Mendeleev wished to stress that an element, with properties similar to those of aluminum, should find a position in the same column of his table.
- 104.
In 1943, in the midst of World War II, Strassmann and his wife Maria Heckter Strassmann saved the life of a Jewish woman, a 46-year-old pianist, Andrea Wolffenstein, by concealing her in their house in spite of the great risk involved [265]. This earned him recognition as a “Righteous Gentile” by Yad Vashem in Israel.
- 105.
Which is the isotope 234 of thorium, 234 90Th.
- 106.
These letters are published in Im Schatten der Sensation, Leben und Wirken von Fritz Straßmann, by Fritz Krafft [283].
- 107.
At the time, Masurium was the name given to the element 43, which two young German chemists, Ida Tacke and Walter Noddack (who were to be married in 1926) thought they had identified in 1925 in a niobium mineral and to which they gave the name masurium, in honor of the region where Walter Noddack was born. However, their identification was put into doubt because the experiment could not be repeated. Since the experiments of Segrè and Perrier, which showed that the element 43, which they produced by bombarding molybdenum with deuterons, has no stable isotopes [292], we know that the isotope, whose radioactive half-life is the longest (61 days) is the isotope 95. It therefore cannot occur in nature. In 1949, the international union of pure and applied chemistry (IUPAC, which was formed in 1919 by chemists from industry and academia) decided to call it technetium to remind that it is an artificial element.
- 108.
It is the letter, dated December 19, 1938, mentioned above on page 136.
- 109.
Irène Curie became the first woman with the rank of Minister in France, while not even having the right to vote!
- 110.
The CNRS (Centre National de Recherche Scientifique) is still today the major research institution in France.
- 111.
See p. 123.
- 112.
See p. 71 and p. 73.
- 113.
The “compound nucleus” formed by uranium 235 and a neutron is the uranium 236 nucleus which has an even number of protons (92) and an even number of neutrons (144). Therefore, the binding energy of a neutron is larger for this nucleus: the neutron arrives on top a deeper potential well, and therefore, the 236 nucleus is in a more highly excited state, at an energy where the nuclear states are more densely spaced so that the neutron has a greater probability of finding a “host state” which allows it to form a compound nucleus. The opposite is true for the isotope 238 which, after absorbing a neutron, becomes the isotope 239 and which does not offer the neutron a state with exactly the energy required for it to be absorbed.
- 114.
See p. 80.
- 115.
See p. 25.
- 116.
See p. 55.
- 117.
See p. 30.
- 118.
See p. 80.
- 119.
See p. 152.
- 120.
See p. 91.
- 121.
See p. 88.
- 122.
Jean Perrin was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1926 “for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium”.
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Fernandez, B. (2013). 1930–1940: A Dazzling Development. In: Unravelling the Mystery of the Atomic Nucleus. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4181-6_5
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