Abstract
This chapter explores variance in ethnobotanical knowledge based on parallel documented uses between Cuba and its two main centers of mass migration: West Africa and the Iberian Mediterranean. Based on 12 months’ fieldwork, it explores the link between medicinal plant-use knowledge, land use, and migrant history at selected sites in central Cuba. Employing natural and social science methods, it seeks to offer a geographical perspective to the study of trans-Atlantic diaspora ethnobotany and New World religious syncretism. Results demonstrate that second-generation residents of selected sites with extensive African immigration (sugar cultivation zones) demonstrate a more detailed knowledge of West African-derived medicinal pharmacopoeia than those in areas with stronger Mediterranean immigration (tobacco cultivation zones). Knowledge derived from the Iberian Mediterranean is more widespread between both agricultural zones and marginally stronger in tobacco cultivation zones of smaller settlement types. This chapter concludes that various strands of diaspora plant-use knowledge thrive in distinct ways in different parts of Cuba, which runs counter to official discourse that portrays traditional medicine as largely derived from Spanish communities. In reexamining religious syncretism in the context of ethnobotany, it advocates a stronger recognition of the important role that African-derived ethnobotanical knowledge has played in Cuba’s colonial and postcolonial history.
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Notes
- 1.
Yorubaland was a principal source of slaves brought to Cuba. The area, which is now part of Nigeria and Benin, spans a range of similar ecosystems to those that make up the Cuban landscape, which include rainforest, savanna, marine, coastal, lagoon, mangrove swamp, and estuarine habitats. Encounters with floristically similar habitats on arrival to Cuba are likely to have provided enslaved Africans with the opportunity for experimentation and adoption of new plants to be used for medicinal purposes.
- 2.
Many species used in Cuba which have strong cultural ties with West Africa continue to be known in everyday parlance by their African lexical names or some form of references to West Africa (indicated by the postfixes de Guinea and de Africa). These include eru or pimienta de Guinea/African Guinea pepper (Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich.), quimbombó/okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench), corojo de Guinea/oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) aleluya roja de Guinea/roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.), yerba de Guinea/ Guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.), akee de Africa/ackee (Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig), ñame/yam (Dioscorea alata L.), and fufú/plantain (Musa × paradisiaca L.) (Roig y Mesa 1988). Further, plants used in a religious context in Cuba are known largely by lexicons employed in ritual languages including the Yoruba-derived lucumí (in santería) and Bantu-derived terminologies (in palo monte) (Cabrera 2000). See Palmié (2005) for an interesting example of how the tracing of plant name linguistic origins can be a complex task.
- 3.
Multidirectional flows of ethnobotanical knowledge and practices followed not only the path of West African captive migrants in their establishment in the Caribbean but also a range of other complex networks of human interactions produced through the slave trade between Europe, Asia, and the New World (Argenti and Rochenthaler 2006). A botanical side effect of colonial trade, for example, was that New World species like pineapples, cashews, capsicum peppers, and papaya were rapidly being cultivated in parts of Asia and Africa (Voeks 2004). Many were also incorporated into local healing, hunting, and ritual practices in these regions. Poisons extracted from Capsicum and Nicotiana, which were introduced to Africa in the seventeenth century from the Americas, have been recorded as fish poisons in parts of West Africa and also serve important ritual functions (Neuwinger 2000).
- 4.
The categorization of a plant as native or nonnative is a problematic one and depends on when, and the way in which, it was introduced to a given region. Information on the ecological, geographical, and genetic history of a given plant is typically used to define its region of origin, though this information is not always readily available. Furthermore, early plant introductions that occurred during the colonial period were not always recorded, and when cited, it was frequently without clear illustrations or reference to voucher specimens (Voeks 1997).
- 5.
Many plant species from Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East came to be cultivated in the Mediterranean before the advent of colonialism, particularly during the era when the Iberian Peninsula was under Moorish rule (Dunmire 2004). A similar situation is also true in West Africa, which counted on Arab and European trade for centuries before the advent of the trans-Atlantic slave trade (Voeks 1997).
- 6.
The nine species that have strong histories of medico-cultural use in both Africa and Europe (according to cited literature in the main text) happen also to be those that are listed in Canary Island ethnobotanical texts. These species were included in order to take account of the more “Africanized” ethnobotanical practices originating from these Spanish islands from where many tobacco workers in Cuba originated. These islands, lying just 108 km off the coast of northwest Africa and 1,129 km from mainland Spain, are far closer to the African continent in geographical terms and therefore share some floristic similarities with mainland Africa together with mainland Europe. Furthermore, an African presence in the Canary Islands was strong from an early stage of the colonial era (Schwartz 2004). Sugar cultivation on the island also depended upon African slave labor, and it also served as a stopover for enslaved Africans en route to the New World.
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Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank all those in Cuba who generously gave their time to contribute to this study and to the Cuban Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (CITMA) for fieldwork permits. Professor Colin Clarke and Dr. Nick Brown at Oxford University provided expert joint doctoral supervision and Yuri Sánchez gave invaluable statistical assistance. Dr. Jan Salick and members of the Oxford Ethnobiology Research Group provided helpful comments on earlier drafts. Generous funding was provided by grants from the UK’s Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC); Jesus College, Oxford; and London University’s Institute of Latin American Studies (ILAS). All views presented in this chapter are those of the author.
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Appendix 1: West African/Iberian Mediterranean Diaspora Plant-Use Inventory
Appendix 1: West African/Iberian Mediterranean Diaspora Plant-Use Inventory
Latin name | Common name | West African use | Mediterranean use | Listed West African uses | Listed Mediterranean uses |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench | Quimbombó | 1 | 0 | Syphilis, antispasmodic, sudorific | x |
Abrus precatorius L. | Peonia | 1 | 0 | Laxative, urinary complaints, paralysis, rheumatism, sore throat, nervous system, blood, purgative, tuberculosis, syphilis, cough | x |
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile | Aroma amarilla | 1 | 0 | Astringent, dysentery, tonic, ulcer treatment | x |
Aframomum melegueta K. Schum. | Atare/pimienta de la costa | 1 | 0 | Carminative, fever, stimulant, dysentery, inflammation, tonsils, toothache, abortifacient, headache, sores, constipation | x |
Aloysia citriodora Palau. | Yerba Luisa | 0 | 1 | x | Anti-spasmodic, stomach complaints, sedative, tonic, aphrodisiac |
Amaranthus spinosus L. | Bledo | 1 | 0 | Diarrhea, mouth ulcers, wounds, menstruation | x |
Artemisia abrotanum L. | Incienso/Artemisa/Ajenjo | 0 | 1 | Rheumatism, parasites, stomach problems | x |
Arundo donax L. | Caña de castilla | 0 | 1 | x | Bronchitis, diarrhea, diuretic, antiinflammatorial |
Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig | Seso vegetal | 1 | 0 | Stimulant, piles, angina, ulcers, conjunctivitis | x |
Brassica nigra (L.) K. Koch | Mostaza negra | 0 | 1 | x | Stimulant |
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. | Gandul | 1 | 1 | Mouthwash, sore throat, abortifacient, burns, dizziness, stomach pain, epilepsy, diarrhea, earache, gonorrhea, measles, syphilis, toothache, wounds | Inflammation, fever |
Cardiospermum halicacabum L. | Farolito | 1 | 0 | Stomach, cathartic, rheumatism, lumbago, swellings, pulmonary complaints, debility, eye infections, laxative | x |
Cassia fistula L. | Caña fistola | 0 | 1 | x | Laxative, vermifuge, skin complaints |
Cassia occidentalis L. | Yerba hedionda | 0 | 1 | x | Respiratory complaints, laxative, skin complaints, antiinflammatory, liver |
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. | Ceiba | 1 | 0 | Febrifuge, laxative, rheumatism, colic, stimulant | x |
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. | Apasote | 0 | 1 | x | Stomach pain, vermifuge, pain reduction, asthma |
Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty | Vetiver | 1 | 0 | Deodorant, skin complaints, tension | x |
Cinnamomum spp. | Canela de China | 0 | 1 | x | Astringent, stimulant, carminative, antiseptic, antifungal, antiviral, blood purifier, digestive aid |
Coffea arabica L. | Café | 1 | 0 | Diuretic, cardial and renal stimulant, headache, asthma | x |
Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott & Endl. & Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl. | Nuez de cola/obi | 1 | 0 | Tonic, astringent, aphrodisiac, venereal disease, wounds, colic, diarrhea, ulcers, abscesses, rashes, heart problems, cough, teeth cleaning, childbirth pain | x |
Conocarpus erectus L. | Yana | 1 | 0 | Fever, gonorrhoea, catarrh | x |
Cordia spp. | Ateje (various) | 1 | 0 | Backache, purgative, fever, cough, weakness | x |
Croton lobatusL. | Frailecillo cimaron | 1 | 0 | Diuretic, stomach pain | x |
Cupressus sempervirens L. | Cipres | 0 | 1 | x | Slow bleeding, healing of wounds, hemorrhoids, rheumatism, vasoconstrictor |
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf | Caña santa/caña de limon | 0 | 1 | x | Fever, digestion, cough, tranquillizer |
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. | Amor seco | 1 | 0 | Dysentery, laxative | x |
Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. | Matemaco | 1 | 0 | Laxative, febrigue, skin complaints, stimulant | x |
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. | Eclipta blanca | 1 | 0 | Diarrhea, liver, spleen, purgative, vomitive | x |
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. | Corojo de guinea/palma africana | 1 | 0 | Excessive menstrual bleeding, headache, gonorrhea, boils, wounds | x |
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. | Pata de gallina | 1 | 0 | Diuretic, laxative, liver, sudorific | x |
Evolvulus spp. | Aguinaldito | 1 | 0 | Antimicrobial, depression | x |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. | Hinojo | 0 | 1 | x | Diuretica, gas, antiinflammatory, antiseptic |
Garcinia kola Heckel | Orogbo | 1 | 0 | Tumors, cancer, gonorrhea, closing of wounds, purgative, aphrodisiac, cough, dysentery, aches, vermifuge | x |
Heliotropium indicum L. | Alacrancillo | 1 | 0 | Gonorrhoea, sores, stings, acne, inflammation, ulcers | x |
Indigofera spp. | Añil/Añil cimarron | 1 | 0 | Lice, kidney and spleen complaints, cough, epilepsy, convulsions, ulcers, inflammation | x |
Lacmellea utilis (Arn.) Markgr. | Lechero/pegojo | 1 | 0 | Skin complaints, wound healing, erectile dysfunction | x |
Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. | Guiro amargo | 1 | 0 | Headache, pectoral, purgative, anthelmintic | Diuretica, diabetes |
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. | Baston de San Francisco | 1 | 0 | Ringworm, scabies, rheumatism, sciatica | x |
Mirabilis jalapa L. | Maravilla | 1 | 1 | Purgative | Purgative |
Momordica charantia L. | Cundeamor | 1 | 1 | Bleeding, piles, dysentery, febrifuge, breast cancer, anthelmintic, stomach complaints, diarrhea, burns, ulcers, wounds, aphrodisiac, gonorrhoea, abortifacient | Diabetes, stomach upsets, skin complaints |
Moringa oleifera Lam. | Paraiso frances | 1 | 0 | Heart, circulation, anti-inflammatory, ulcers, antibacterial | x |
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. | Ojo de buey/pica pica | 1 | 0 | Cholera, diuretic, piles, anthelmintic, syphilitic ulcers, sores, prevent miscarriage, headache, purgative | x |
Nerium oleander L. | Adelfa | 1 | 1 | Swellings, ulcers, skin disease, diuretic | Heart, sedative, skin complaints |
Ocimum basilicum L. | Albahaca blanca | 1 | 1 | Febrifuge, ringworm, vermifuge, gonorrhoea, urinary infections, diarrhea, dysentery, post-birth pain | Digestive, sedative, tonic, antispasmodic |
Ocimum gratissimum L. | Albahaca cimarrona/albaca de clavo | 1 | 0 | Antibacterial, antifungal, stomach upsets | x |
Origanum majorana L. | Mejorana | 0 | 1 | x | Digestive complaints, respiratory complaints, antiseptic, headache |
Phyllanthus spp. | Yerba de la niña | 1 | 0 | Kidneys, liver complaints, inflammation, digestion | x |
Plantago major L. | Llanten | 0 | 1 | x | Tumors, diarrhea, slows bleeding, antiinflammatorial, repair of scar tissue |
Portulaca oleracea L. | Verdolaga | 1 | 1 | Diuretic, slow blood flow, vomitive, burns | Anti-inflammatory, diuretic, migraine |
Punica granatum L. | Granada | 0 | 1 | x | Astringent, diuretic, digestive, intestinal worms, dysentery, vermifuge |
Raphanus sativusL. | Rabano | 0 | 1 | x | Rheumatism, stimulant |
Rauwolfia spp. | Amorcillo | 1 | 0 | Reduce blood pressure, hypnotic, sedative, indigestion, scabies, tonic, purgative, venereal disease, sexual stimulant, blood pressure, sores, measles, herpes, mental illness | x |
Rhizophora mangle L. | Mangle rojo | 1 | 0 | Slows bleeding | x |
Ricinus communis L. | Higuereta | 1 | 1 | Increase milk flow in breastfeeding, parasites, purgative, sores, burns, ulcers, abortive | Laxative, hair growth, antiheminitic, eyes, anti-inflammatory, allergic reactions |
Ruta chalepensis L. | Ruda | 0 | 1 | x | Cough, stomach ache, abortifacient, slows bleeding, emmenagogue |
Salvia officinalis L. | Salvia de Castilla | 0 | 1 | x | Stimulant, antiseptic, antibacterial, rheumatism |
Smilax aspera L. | Sarsaparilla | 0 | 1 | x | Urinary antiseptic, sudorific, diuretic, purative, laxative, high blood sugar level |
Spondias mombin L. | Jobo | 1 | 0 | Purgative, gonorrhea, infertility, aphrodisiac, tumors, febrifuge | x |
Tamarindus indica L. | Tamarindo | 1 | 1 | Tonic, laxative, diarrhea, jaundice, burns, febrifuge, conjunctivitis | Laxative, purgative |
Triumfetta spp. | Guizazo de caballo/guizazo de cochino | 1 | 0 | Diarrhea, stops bleeding, gonorrhea, dysentery, facilitate childbirth | x |
Verbena officinalis L. | Verbena | 0 | 1 | x | Sedative, emetic, digestive, disinfectant |
Vernonia spp. | Rompezaraguey | 1 | 0 | Stomach complaints, antispasmodic, parasites | x |
Vetiveria zizanoides | Vetiver | 1 | 0 | Deodorant, skin complaints, tension | x |
Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich. | Eru/Pimienta de guinea | 1 | 0 | Constipation, tonic, fever, mucus, bronchitis, gonorrhea, dysentery, backache, abortifacient, coughs, stimulant, to purify water, fertility, lumbago, sores, headache, vermifuge, vomitive | x |
Zanthoxylum spp. | Ayua | 1 | 0 | Toothache, digestion, rheumatism | x |
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Moret, E.S. (2013). Trans-Atlantic Diaspora Ethnobotany: Legacies of West African and Iberian Mediterranean Migration in Central Cuba. In: Voeks, R., Rashford, J. (eds) African Ethnobotany in the Americas. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0836-9_9
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